Visual Literacy Series: Cultural Industry and What It Implies
Foreword
Visual Literacy Series articles serve as one of the academic courses in this precise field. The main aim of this research is to focus attention on the analysis of the topic of “mass culture”, its visual representations and the ways it takes action through imagery and its components. The theoretical framework will be covered from a “counter hegemonic” stance and, essentially, the project involves the attempt to create a diagonal discourse that promotes visual literacy through the idea of art as a pedagogical and revolutionary act, since it moves collective subjectivities.
Visual Literacy Series will be mainly divided into the following chapters of content:
Where the necessity begins: examples and contextualisation of control.
Cultural Industry and what it implies.
Cultural Industry and what it implies
So far, we have seen how the term mass culture and what it represents was born due to collective cultural indoctrination, with Michel Foucault's "disciplinary society" or Gilles Deleuze's "societies of control." The present study is therefore positioned from the perspective of manipulation and control by the hegemonic powers, studied by authors such as María Bretones and Umberto Eco, and which had previously taken shape in the critical theory of modernity. Thus, these practices of conditioning culture make up what can be called: the cultural industry. This definition can be understood as a system of producing and distributing standardised cultural products via different production mediums with an emphasis on transmitting a uniform message to the largest possible audience. The products of this kind are not only limited to images and television shows but also include music and fashion, among other things.
Figure 1 – Marilyn Monroe, Andy Warhol (1967)
For his part, Eco groups together the different criticisms that have been stated against the cultural industry that the disciples of the Frankfurt School speak of, which he also calls "mass culture" and which he relates directly to the CMMs (Eco, 1995: 37-9):
1. CMMs target a heterogeneous audience and avoid original solutions, offering content to the taste of the majority.
2. Thus, a homogeneous culture is disseminated globally, which destroys the cultural characteristics of ethnic groups.
3. They address an audience that does not identify with any characteristic group, and therefore does not demand specific content. Therefore, they experience the CMM's demands without even knowing it.
4. They do not promote renewals of sensibility. They adapt themselves to the styles and forms spread before. They perform functions of pure conservation.
5. Instead of suggesting emotions, the CMMs give them ready-made.
6. CMMs are subjected to the law of supply and demand. They follow the laws of an economy based on consumption and sustained by the persuasive action of advertising; they suggest to the public what it should desire.
[...]
10. They encourage an immense amount of information about the present and thus hinder any historical consciousness.
[...]
12. CMMs tend to impose symbols and myths of easy universality, thus minimising the individuality and concreteness of our life’s experiences.
13. They work on opinions, on commonality; they work with a continuous reaffirmation of what we already think. They develop a socially conservative action.
14. They develop under conformism in the sphere of customs, cultural values, social and religious principles, political tendencies.
15. The CMMs are presented as the typical educational instrument of a paternalistic, superficially individualistic and democratic society, substantially tending to produce heterodirected human models. It is a superstructure of a capitalist regime used for the purpose of control and coercive planning of consciences.
Figure 2 – Umberto Eco
In the abstract above, Umberto Eco explores the impact of CMMs on modern culture and identity, suggesting that it is currently discouraging authenticity and critical thinking, solely facilitating uniform thinking patterns. Such factors increase the dissemination of homogeneous culture on a large scale while slowly erasing the cultural characteristics of different ethnic groups and communities. Eco highlights that CMMs depend on the economy of consumption and general capitalism feature, being subjected to the laws of supply and demand. Thus it hinders historical consciousness while encouraging conformity of customs, principles, and other cultural tendencies. Overall, this abstract shows that CMMs are present to society as an educational instrument that serves the purpose of control and coercive planning of consciences, reinforcing the structure of a capitalist regime.
Eco concludes his idea by pointing out that "they apparently offer the fruits of higher culture, but emptied of the ideology and critique that animated them. [...] As mass control, they perform the same function that in certain historical circumstances religious ideologies performed' (Eco, 1995: 39). He emphasises the paradoxical nature of mass culture in which its products attempt to act as a representation of high culture, however, they lack critical foundations that originally give meaning to them. Consequently, it once again leads to a form of mass control rather than a genuine expression of cultural diversity and creativity. In this sense, Eco agrees with Adorno and Horkheimer in positing the spectators as "the deceived mass [...] passive, hetero determined and enslaved victim" (Kancler, 2013: 108). In his Apocalyptic and Integrated, Eco claims not to deal with Theodor Adorno's approaches because he considers them already established theories (Eco, 1995). Thus, the authors converge on the idea that the commercialisation of culture leads to the promotion of elitist imagery and hegemonic supremacy, relegating the cultural products of the social base to the background. This makes competition between these two spheres impossible and industrialises popular culture. Popular culture, consequently, is inevitably subjected to government policy. Philip Armstrong, philosopher and professor at the University of Canterbury, argues:
What matters is how what is imposed on us are thoughts of affirmation, not reaction, the limits of thought, not the (in)adequacy of thought to its object, and a world of creative possibilities and virtualities, not the constraints of epistemological guarantees and desires. (as cited in Brea, 2005: 129-30)
Here he is reflecting on a critical perspective on the ways by which dominant cultural forms act as tools for manipulation and control, thus emphasising the need for resistance and reimagination of alternatives outside of these cultural constraints imposed by the epistemological frameworks and desires. This observation is logically followed by the assessments carried out by María Acaso, a Spanish professor and researcher specialising in Art Education, and Silvia Nuere, lecturer at the Polytechnic University of Madrid, regarding the hidden curriculum of the visual. They define it as the "set of contents that are transmitted implicitly in an educational context" (Acaso and Nuere, 2005: 208) through the image, a reflection that should be transferred to all possible forms and reproductions of the visual, such as the CMMs. Thus, the authors argue that this type of information and knowledge "lay the foundations of the patriarchal and capitalist system and perpetuate the current asymmetrical distribution of power"(Acaso and Nuere, 2005: 208). In this way, CMMs do not have to show manipulative or indoctrinating content explicitly. However, they can implicitly legitimise specific hegemonic values and interests through their audiovisual compositions, which naturalise them. Another thinker, the Italian philosopher Gianni Vatimmo, went so far as to say that "the reality of the world is nothing more than something that is constituted as a context of multiple fictions" (Vattimo, 1990: 108). Regarding this issue, the Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Zizek argues that in this system, the ideology systematically implanted in us through the implicit is already so naturalised that it takes something disruptive for the masses to open their eyes. The system is ruled by dictators in democracy who establish an invisible order through the various MCMs that sustain the apparent freedom of the population (Fiennes and Zizek, 2012).
The need for resistance and to reimagine alternatives outside of the limitations imposed by prevailing epistemological frameworks and desires are highlighted by reflection on dominant cultural forms acting as tools for manipulation and control. Silvia Nuere, a lecturer, and Mara Acaso, a specialist in art education, explore the concept of the hidden curriculum of the visual. They describe it as the implicit communication of information through images within an educational context; this definition encompasses all forms of visual media, including computer-mediated media(CMMs). The authors contend that such knowledge and information are the foundation for the patriarchal and capitalist system, maintaining the current asymmetrical power relations. The risk is that CMMs implicitly normalise particular hegemonic values and interests through audiovisual compositions rather than explicitly displaying manipulative or indoctrinating content. This idea is expanded upon by Italian philosopher Gianni Vattimo, who contends that the world's reality comprises various fictions. Based on this, Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Zizek claims that the ideology gradually ingrained in people through the implicit becomes so naturalised that it takes a disruptive event to arouse the general populace. In this system, dictators who pose as democratic leaders erect an imperceptible order through various media outlets, maintaining the appearance of freedom while secretly exercising control over the populace (Fiennes & Zizek, 2012). In order to comprehend and confront the underlying power structures that mould our perceptions and society, it is necessary to examine critically the implicit messages that CMMs convey.
Figure 3 – The pervert’s guide to ideology, film poster
Then, we are faced with the situation that the CMMs offer not only us products, information, and knowledge but ways of life. They orient us as to what we should be and what we should constitute within the society to which we belong, "they contribute to the construction of the socio-cultural identity of the people in our societies [...] we are faced with a highly effective ideological tool of social alienation" (Lomas, 2001: 32). Noam Chomsky, American linguist and philosopher, concludes that the CMMs are strategic instruments subordinated to the significant economic corporations that dominate the state and civil society (Chomsky and Ramonet, 2015). Both scholars Zizek and Chomsky agree that the mass media solely serves the ruling class's interests and is used as an ideological tool for coercion and manipulation of society at large. Martín Prada further suggests that today's informational mechanisms not only subjugate the spectator but also imbue them with the loss of their freedoms, which are now understood more "as the possibility and exercise of spontaneity, moving away from the idea of freedom, increasingly, that old and rich sense that linked it with autonomy" (Martín Prada, 2018: 25). To which the activist and associate professor in the Department of Visual Arts and Design at the University of Barcelona, Tjaša Kancler, adds:
When we talk about the relationship between globalisation, capitalism and culture/art, we have to establish, as Gržinić points out, the critique of the formation of "universal culture and art", which takes place on three decisive and co-dependent levels (economic, political, institutional), and which establishes culture/art as hegemonic and ideological apparatuses. (Kancler, 2013: 131)
Kancler highlights the necessity to examine the intersection between capitalism and culture and the role of cultural and artistic institutions in modern society in relation to ideological apparatuses that support hegemonic power structures. Umberto Eco, however, proposes a solution to this manipulation of stratospheric qualities. He suggests the possibility of change through small events that originated in a particular way and due to personal initiatives of a revolutionary nature and which, as a whole, can modify the system, which should be carried out by what he calls "men of culture." He defends that these will be the ones who should supply information through the CMMs in order to move away from the standardisation and stratification of the content received by the population. Finally, mass culture can be constituted as a "culture exercised at the level of all citizens" (Eco, 1995: 46) and not only from the higher hegemonic orders.
The concern raised by Martin Prada's observation of modern informational mechanisms extends beyond the simple enslavement of the spectator. In contrast to the traditional idea of freedom associated with autonomy, modern freedom is seen as the ability and exercise of spontaneity, entwined with the abundance of information and choices from modern media and communication technologies. It may seem empowering, but it may lead to control and manipulation. People may feel they have a false sense of freedom due to the massive amount of information available. However, these choices are heavily influenced by the systems supplying the information. As people become conditioned to react to stimuli rather than making decisions based on independent thought, this context may reduce genuine autonomy and critical thinking.
Figure 4 – Kyungmi Shin Father Crosses the Ocean
The viewpoint of Tjaa Kancler emphasises the significance of the interaction between globalisation, capitalism, and culture/art in determining the content people encounter. At the institutional, political, and economic levels, "universal culture and art" are created, reinforcing hegemonic ideologies and power structures. Institutions of the arts and culture play a part in upholding prevailing narratives and values, which raises questions about the veracity and variety of cultural expressions. Umberto Eco responds by outlining a plan of action that emphasises individual agency and group effort. He supports the idea that small-scale actions taken by individuals with radical ideas, when combined, can result in significant systemic changes. In order to combat information standardisation and stratification, Eco emphasises "men of culture" as change agents. By utilising alternative channels like Computer-Mediated Media (CMMs), they can dispel myths that are currently prevalent, promote a culture that is engaged on the level of all citizens, and encourage active participation in culture as opposed to passive consumption.
The interaction of Prada's observations on the changing nature of freedom in the context of informational mechanisms, Kanclers critique of the emergence of hegemonic culture and art, and Eco's call for transformative change through individual initiatives highlight the need for a nuanced understanding of the complex interactions between information, culture, capitalism, and power structures. It also emphasises the importance of supporting individual initiative and group endeavours to create a more democratic, diverse, and inclusive cultural environment.
On the one hand, Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, a French psychoanalyst and philosopher, have approached the definition and analysis of the "concept" with which they also intend to put forward a practical proposal for its application in the face of the manipulative regimes of information. To this end, they refer to a tripartite structure made up of several stages that shape and compose the concept as an epistemological conception.
The first of them deals with the aspiration for total and absolute knowledge, the yearning for knowledge.
The second, for its part, is the "pedagogy of the concept".
And the third would become the conquest of the concept by informational apparatuses such as design, advertising or the rest of the CMMs.
This structure relates to the acquisition and dissemination of knowledge. The first point suggests that the individual's desire for knowledge acts as a primary driver of progress, which has, however, also posed ethical and philosophical questions regarding the limits of human understanding. The second part emphasises the understanding of learning and how it allows people to adapt accumulated knowledge on a daily basis to new situations. Lastly, the third part of this structure shows the impact of technology and modern development on human understanding and acquisition of knowledge. As a whole, these points bring up questions of limitations of knowledge and the importance of education in increasing the levels of critical thinking when impacted by society's relationship with modern technology. Faced with the possibilities of inhabiting one or more of the stages they establish, they encourage the reader to maintain the "pedagogy of the concept." They consider this to be the only path that "can prevent us from falling from the summits of the first into the absolute disaster of the third, an absolute disaster for thought, independently, of course, of its possible social benefits from the point of view of universal capitalism" (Deleuze and Guattari, 1993: 18).
Figure 5 – Deleuze and Guattari
From a personal perspective, a less ambitious view can be presented, framed within the “pedagogy of the concept” proposed by Deleuze and Guattari, perhaps if considering Eco’s proposal on the introduction of infiltrated revolutionaries into the large mass communication apparatuses can be too idealistic. However, this statement follows the premise presented byEco on small events of a revolutionary nature too, which seeks to promote the critical interpretation of information experienced through the visual, encouraging visual literacy as a modus operandi to be adopted by every individual autonomously, seeking the independence and liberation from the hegemonic information instruments. Therefore, the cultivation of visual literacy can empower individuals to engage with media and information in a critical manner, promoting a more knowledgeable and autonomous society.
Bibliographic references
Acaso, María and Nuere, Silvia (2005). El currículo oculto visual: aprender a obedecer a través de la imagen. Arte, Individuo y Sociedad, vo. 17, pp. 205-218. Madrid, Spain: Polytechnic University of Madrid.
Chomsky, Noam and Ramonet, Ignacio (2015). Foro Internacional “Emancipación e Igualdad”. Interview to Noam Chomsky by Ignacio Ramonet at the Public Argentinian Television. Buenos Aires, Argentina: TPA. Available on: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RIqtSBdsLw
Deleuze, Gilles and Guattari, Felix (1993). What is Philosophy? Barcelona, Spain: Anagrama. [1st ed. 1991]
Eco, Umberto (1995). Apocalyptics and Integrated. Barcelona, Spain: Tusquets editores. [1st ed. 1964]
Fiennes, Sophie and Zizek, Slavoj (2012). The Pervert’s Guide to Ideology [documentary film]. Available on: http://cuevana0.tv/peliculas/the-perverts-guideto-ideology
Kancler, Tjasa; López, María and Ameller, Carles (2013). Arte, política y resistencia en la era posmoderna (PhD thesis). Barcelona, Spain: Barcelona University.
Lomas, Carlos (2001). La estética de los objetos y la ética de los sujetos. Comunicar, Revista Científica de Comunicación y Educación, vo. 17, pp. 31—39.
Martín Prada, Juan (2018). El ver y las imágenes en el tiempo de Internet (Estudios visuales). Madrid, Spain: AKAL.
Vattimo, Gianni (1990). La sociedad transparente. Barcelona, Spain: Paidós.
Visual Sources
Cover image: Mao, Andy Warhol (1973). Available on: https://www.theartist.me/art-inspiration/famous-andy-warhol-paintings/
Figure 1: Marilyn Monroe, Andy Warhol (1967). Available on: https://www.theartist.me/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/andy-warhol-marilyn-1200x800.jpg
Figure 2: Umberto Eco posing with a set of books. Available on: https://www.latercera.com/resizer/z0kiW5eHDa8YME19URuJQxNnP6k=/900x600/smart/arc-anglerfish-arc2-prod-copesa.s3.amazonaws.com/public/G67IGW63UBFDFPIRLFI6I5NXRM.jpg
Figure 3: The pervert’s guide to ideology, film poster. Available on: http://honisoit.com/archive/website/2013/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/zizek.jpg
Figure 4: Kyungmi, Shin. Father crosses the Ocean. Available on: https://www.npr.org/2020/11/12/931590353/an-artist-explores-what-crosses-the-ocean-in-porcelain-and-painted-collage
Figure 5: Deleuze and Guattari lecturing together in 1980. Available on: https://nu.aeon.co/images/17a244ae-0818-43c9-8d27-447ad1026591/header_essay-110153028.jpg
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