Adapting the UK Coast to Climate Change
Coastal flooding and erosion have been identified as the two biggest risks to the coastal communities of the United Kingdom (UK) (Haigh et al., 2020; Blunkell, 2024). The devastating North Sea Flood of 1953 revealed the coastline's vulnerability, at the time poorly protected and managed, to unpredictable and extreme weather changes caused by climate change (acknowledged in government circles). The event laid the foundations for the country's modern coastal adaptation measures, which this article will discuss.
While there exists no agreed definition of coastal communities, for the benefit of this article, a relevant suggestion is offered by Kazimierczuk et al. (2023) as “people living at the interface between the land and the sea, where ecosystems and human activities are especially interconnected.” As of 2019, roughly 8% of the UK—the combined populations of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland—lives in coastal communities (House of Lords, 2019).
Coastal communities along the UK’s 12,500 km coastline are rich in history, heritage, natural beauty, and tourist attractions (French, 2004). However, they also account for some of the country’s most deprived towns (Zsamboky et al., 2011; McDowell et al., 2019). The coastal populations are in decline (Barton et al., 2022), but these urban centres continue to be “pockets of significant deprivation” (Social Market Foundation, 2017, quoted in House of Lords, 2019, p.13), with a disproportionate number of disadvantaged residents, such as the elderly, seriously or long-term ill, and the unemployed, compared to non-coastal urban environments. These vulnerable groups will still be severely affected by the increased coastal erosion and flooding caused by future climate change (Buser, 2020; Young & Essex, 2020), which will disrupt local support networks and essential services and damage homes and vital infrastructure. A widely reported 2022 climate change study of the English coast, Responding to climate change around England’s coast - The scale of the transformational challenge, found that up to 200,000 coastal properties in England alone were at risk of flooding and erosion by 2050 (Sayers et al., 2022).
Despite the global reputation of the UK's existing flood defences (Haigh et al., 2022) and the government's ambitious plan to be "better protected ... better prepared" to reduce erosion (HM Government, 2020, quoted in Sayers et al., 2022), the urgency to adapt coastal regions to climate change was highlighted by the UK Government’s third Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA3), published in January 2022, which outlines the increasing risks of erosion and sea level rises to the country's coastal communities.
The Climate Change Act and SMPs
Although the Climate Change Act 2008 became the framework for lowering carbon emissions by 2050 to achieve net zero (Climate Change Committee, n.d.) and established the influential Climate Change Committee (CCC) to monitor and advise the UK government, the coastal management responsibilities are divided between a “patchwork” (Committee on Climate Change, 2018) of government agencies and departments. This has limited the effectiveness of the devolved governments of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales to implement and assess their climate adaptation measures (legislation passed in 2022, 2009, and 2016, respectively). The situation in Northern Ireland typifies the lack of oversight, where the CCRA3 reported a “lower level of quality evidence available and in some sectors, relatively limited climate related policy in force” (Climate Northern Ireland, 2021).
Since the mid-1990s, in England and Wales, coastal groups of local authorities and interested parties, overseen by the UK Environmental Agency, have implemented Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs) to manage and protect the coastline sustainably and the public against growing flood and coastal erosion risks (Leafe et al., 1998). The first generation of SMPs, SMP1, was developed until 1999; between 2006 and 2012, the SMP2 were operational. Today, the entire English and Welsh coastline is covered by SMPs, with each group working with one of four “generic” (Ballinger & Dodds, 2020) policy options: do nothing, hold the line (maintain existing coastal structures), managed realignment (move defences inland to allow the sea to reclaim once protected land), and advance the line (expand defences or reclaim the sea to build new ones). The timeframes of 0-20, 20-50, and 50-100 years take into account changing coastal conditions and allow plans to be adapted (Earlie et al., 2012), such as when “hold the line policies may not be suitable” (Esteves, 2014).
However, while SMPs are central to the government's protection of the coastline, they are non-statutory documents; there is no legal requirement to implement or enforce a coastal plan. Through workshops attended by key individuals, Brown et al. (2023) found the lack of understanding of SMPs' funding, timeframes, expectations, and outcomes by local government and the public had affected their implementation and effectiveness. Limited central government funding has also been identified by Ledoux et al. (2005) (quoted in Milligan et al. (2009)) and Pontee et al. (2008).
The North Sea Flood of 1953 and Modern Adaptation
Modern coastal flooding events are not unique to the island nation; in 2017, 329 coastal flooding events from 1915 to 2016, varying in severity, were recorded by Haigh et al. (2017). Climate change, though, has accelerated adaptation action to mitigate the impacts of more frequent and extreme events. Meijer & Böhle (2024) of the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) define adaptation as “any action that reduces the impact of climate change on society and ecosystems.” Similar definitions of adaptation refer to reducing vulnerability (Lim & Spanger-Siegfried, 2004) and moderating the negative effects (Frankhauser, 2017).
The UK’s adaptation planning can be traced to the devastating North Sea Flood of 1953, when poor planning and monitoring allowed an extreme weather event to cause the death of hundreds and the catastrophic destruction of agriculture, infrastructure, and property (Lumbroso & Vinet, 2011; Hall, 2015).
A violent storm led to the North Sea Flood that flooded the Netherlands and areas on the east coasts of England and Scotland between January 31 and February 1, 1953 (Baxter, 2005). The event was the worst natural disaster to hit Britain in the 20th century, killing more than 300 people, with the elderly accounting for the highest mortality (Lumbroso & Vinet, 2011). Furthermore, the flooding destroyed thousands of homes and swamped valuable farmland (Wadey et al., 2015). Due to the lack or total absence of warning systems and the inadequacies and structural failures of Britain’s existing sea defences, the destruction, economic loss, and social shock exposed the vulnerability of the coastal regions when faced with the unpredictability of extreme weather events.
A significant consequence of the 1953 flood was the acknowledgement within UK government circles that the disaster resulted from climate change (Kelly, 2018, p.206). However, this weather shift was attributed to natural cycles rather than today’s universal consensus of human activity. Preparation for future extremes of this kind, though, by investing in coastal defence was one of the key recommendations of the official Waverley Report (Hall, 2015), the Departmental Committee on Coastal Flooding findings published the following year (Waverley, 1954). Importantly, scientific research was acknowledged by the committee and incorporated to shape national disaster policy (Baxter, 2005; Hall, 2015). The report called for strengthening the country’s coastal defence infrastructure and recognised the risk of inland flooding of the capital (Lumbroso & Vinet, 2011). Its recommendations led to the establishment of the Storm Tide Warning Service (STWS) and the beginning of London’s Thames Barrier, eventually constructed between 1974 and 1982, to protect the capital from high tides in the Thames Estuary where it meets the North Sea.
The repercussions of the North Sea Flood laid the foundations for the UK’s flood risk management policy (Hall, 2015), but the long-term attitude of adaptation planning, certainly until the beginning of this century, was “against which human beings could only mount a defence” (Kelly, 2018, p.206). Nature's natural barrier—the land—would be encased in the concrete and steel of hard engineering solutions acting as man's protective barrier against the worst of the sea.
Hold the Line?
In coastal management, thousands of kilometres of coastline in Great Britain (England, Scotland, and Wales) are covered by non-statutory SMPs overseen by the Environmental Agency (Ballinger & Dodds, 2020), with between 1,600 and 1,900 km designated in England as hold/holding the line (HTL) during this century (Sayers et al., 2022). HTL is one of four shoreline management options that involves maintaining existing sea defence structures to preserve the present condition of the coastline, thereby reducing its exposure to irreversible change.
In Northern Ireland, the lack of coastal erosion has meant no government system has been implemented (Cooper et al., 2020) or national research conducted (Amey Consulting & HR Wallingford, 2018), but environmental protection measures have been put in place since the beginning of this century to preserve the natural assets vital to its growing tourism industry (McLaughlin & Bann, 2002).
The SMPs covering the English and Welsh coastline are “working documents” (Cooper et al., 2020) and are subject to review and revision since the scientific research of coastal management is constantly evolving. The uncertainty of sea level rise and coastal erosion makes long-term HTL problematic and costly, especially as 17% of the UK coastline is experiencing erosion (Masselink et al., 2020), some of which is the fastest eroding in Europe (Kantamaneni et al., 2022)—specifically the Holderness coastline on England’s east coast (Bankoff, 2013, p.15). Life-changing decisions will need to be made in locations where the traditional policy of protecting the land from the sea by defences eventually becomes untenable because either the magnitude of sea level rises or the extent of coastal erosion has been underestimated (Haigh et al., 2022). Since the end of the 1990s, changes in SMP strategy to work with nature—by implementing multifunctional nature-based solutions (soft engineering)—reflect the rising costs of the HTL policy due to existing hard structures unable to withstand modern weather extremes (Arnall, 2023).
The UK’s First Climate Change Refugees
Gwynedd local government, governing the county of Gwynedd in northwest Wales, has decided the seaside village of Fairbourne will be abandoned by the middle of this century due to accelerated sea level rise (Wyn, 2022; Arnall & Hilson, 2023). Coastal communities in the UK are at increasing risk from future coastal erosion and flooding (Buser, 2020; Young & Essex, 2020), but Fairbourne is an extreme case of adaptation. The low-lying village is protected from the Irish Sea by a shingle bank and concrete sea wall (Fairbourne Moving Forward Partnership, 2019). The residents have internationally been dubbed the UK’s “first climate change refugees” (Barnes & Dove, 2015, quoted in Wyn, 2022), as their community will become the first in the country to undergo a managed retreat due to climate change. A reminder that the experience of global, borderless climate risks is “everywhere and nowhere” (Jasanoff, 2010, p. 237, quoted in Arnall & Hilson, 2023).*
By acknowledging a phased adaptation to eventually abandoning the village to the elements (Bennett-Lloyd et al., 2019; Jenkins et al., 2022), the 2012 Shoreline Management Plan for Fairbourne (West of Wales SMP2), adopted by Gwynedd and Welsh governments, has become a significant example of planned retreat instead of the standard measures protecting the shoreline from erosion and flooding (Buser, 2020). Faced with knowledge of the rising sea level gradually engulfing the village, engineering costs and challenges mean the strategy of holding the line—protective measures to preserve the shoreline—will no longer be viable after 2025 when local government intervention and investment in the village’s coastal defences cease. These surprising decisions by authorities demonstrate “the fragility of our communities” (Buser, 2024, p.80) faced with the unpredictability of climate change.*
The Future of the Coast
Young & Essex (2020) and Jenkins et al. (2022) highlight the UK trend of the short-termism of modern adaptation strategies rather than “fundamental transformational change” (Young & Essex, 2020).
As witnessed in 1953, coastal threats to the UK are unpredictable in their extremes and trends (Kantamaneni et al., 2022), and climate change will exacerbate the flooding and erosion events already occurring. The lack of local and national political will and financial resources can be significant barriers to successfully implementing adaptation strategies (Weyrich 2016). Indeed, on the day they released their report, Managing the Coast in a Changing Climate, the methods of protecting the UK coastline were described by the Committee on Climate Change as “not fit for purpose” due to inaction and the lack of legal responsibility (Climate Change Committee, 2018, October).
The historical trend of “demarcating the land from the sea” (Arnall, 2022) by using expensive hold-the-line (hard) engineering solutions to satisfy public demand (Sayers et al., 2022), has largely failed to provide planned, long-term solutions as sea levels rise and coastal erosion intensifies (Arnall, 2023). An evidence-based, multidisciplinary approach involving governments, local communities, and experts is urgently needed. Acknowledging the science of climate change, like in 1953, and investing in multifunctional soft engineering solutions, means more sustainable coastal strategies can be implemented (French, 2004; Martin et al., 2017).
*Previously published in Waugh, E. (2024, September 22). Urban Adaptation Strategies in the UK. Arcadia. Retrieved from https://www.byarcadia.org/post/urban-adaptation-strategies-in-the-uk
Bibliographical references
Amey Consulting & HR Wallingford. (2018, December 8). Baseline Study and Gap Analysis of Coastal Erosion Risk Management NI. Retrieved from https://www.infrastructure-ni.gov.uk/publications/baseline-study-and-gap-analysis-coastal-erosion-risk-management-ni
Arnall, A. (2023). Encountering the Anthropocene: reconfiguring human-nature relations on the North Norfolk Coast, UK. Geoforum, 143, 103768. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2023.103768
Arnall, A. & Hilson, C. (2023). Climate change imaginaries: Representing and contesting sea level rise in Fairbourne, North Wales. Political Geography, 102, 102839. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2023.102839
Ballinger, R. & Dodds, W. (2020). Shoreline management plans in England and Wales: A scientific and transparent process. Marine Policy, 111, 102689. DOI: 10.1016/j.marpol.2017.03.009
Bankoff, G. (2013). The “English Lowlands” and the North Sea Basin System: A History of Shared Risk. Environment and History, 19(1), 3–37. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43298471
Barnes, J. & Dove, M.R. (2015). Introduction. In Barnes, J. & Dove, M.R. (Eds.) Climate cultures: Anthropological perspectives on climate change (pp.1–21). Yale University Press.
Barton, C., Cromarty, H., Garratt, K., & Ward, M. (2022). The Future of Coastal Communities (CDP 2022/0153). House of Commons Library. https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CDP-2022-0153/CDP-2022-0153.pdf
Baxter, P.J. (2005). The East Coast big flood, 31 January-1 February 1953: A summary of the human disaster. Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 363(no.1831), 1293–1312. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30039654
Bennett-Lloyd, P., Brisley, R., Goddard, S., & Smith S. (2019). Fairbourne Coastal Risk Management Learning Project. Welsh Government. Retrieved from https://www.gov.wales/sites/default/files/publications/2019-12/fairbourne-coastal-risk-management-learning-project.pdf
Blunkell, C.T. (2024). Talking ‘bout a revolution: Resilience and coastal policy in England. Local Environment, 29(5), 631–646. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2023.2298672
Brown, S., Tompkins E.L., Suckall, N., French, J., Haigh, I.D., Lazarus, E., Nicholls, R.J., Penning-Rowsell, E.C., Thompson, C.E.L., Townend, I., & Plank, S. van der. (2023). Transitions in modes of coastal adaptation: Addressing blight, engagement and sustainability. Frontiers in Marine Science. DOI: 10.3389/fmars.2023.1153134
Buser, M. (2020). Coastal adaptation planning in Fairbourne, Wales: Lessons for climate change adaptation. Planning Practice & Research, 35(2), 127-147. https://doi.org/10.1080/02697459.2019.1696145
Buser, M. (2024). The Water–Land Interface: Care in the Face of Coastal Change. In Buser, M. (Ed.) Ecologies of Care in Times of Climate Change: Water Security in the Global Context (pp.58–81). Bristol University Press.
Climate Change Committee. (n.d.). A Legal Duty to Act. Retrieved from https://www.theccc.org.uk/what-is-climate-change/a-legal-duty-to-act/
Climate Change Committee. (2018, October 26). Current approach to protecting England’s coastal communities from flooding and erosion not fit for purpose as the climate changes. Climate Change Committee. Retrieved from https://www.theccc.org.uk/2018/10/26/current-approach-to-protecting-englands-coastal-communities-from-flooding-and-erosion-not-fit-for-purpose-as-the-climate-changes/
Climate Change Committee. (2018). Managing the Coast in a Changing Climate. Retrieved from https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Managing-the-coast-in-a-changing-climate-October-2018-1.pdf
Climate Northern Ireland. (2021). Third UK Climate Change Risk Assessment Technical Report: Summary for Northern Ireland (CCRA3-1A). Climate Change Committee (CCC).
Cooper, A., O'Connor, M., & McIvor, S. (2020). Coastal defences versus coastal ecosystems: A regional appraisal. Marine Policy, 111, 102332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2016.02.021
Cooper, N.J., Barber, P.C., Bray, M.J., Carter, D.J. (2002). Shoreline management plans: A national review and engineering perspective. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Water and Maritime Engineering, 154(3), 221-228. DOI: 10.1680/wame.2002.154.3.221
Earlie, C., Guthrie, G., & Clipsham, V. (2012). West of Wales Shoreline Management Plan 2: Cardigan Bay and Ynys Enlli to the Great Orme Coastal Groups (Final, 9T9001). Peterborough, UK: Haskoning UK Ltd. Coastal & Rivers. Retrieved from https://www.grwparfordirolgorllewincymru.cymru/sites/default/files/2019-06/1%20-%20Section%201.pdf
Esteves, L.S. (2014). Managed realignment: A Viable Long-Term Coastal Management Strategy? Springer Briefs in Environmental Science. New York: Springer.
Fairbourne Moving Forward Partnership. (2019). Fairbourne a Framework for the Future (Public consultation document, Autumn 2019). Gwynedd County Council. Retrieved from https://doinggeoandethics.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/fairbourne-aframeworkforthefuture.pdf
Fankhauser, S. (2017). Adaptation to climate change. Annual Review of Resource Economics, 9, 209-230. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26773555
French, P.W. (2004). The changing nature of, and approaches to, UK coastal management at the start of the twenty-first century. The Geographical Journal, 170(2), 116-125. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3451588
Haigh, I., Ozsoy, O., Wadey, M.P., Nicholls, R.J., Gallop, S.L., Wahl, T., & Brown, J.M. (2017). An improved database of coastal flooding in the United Kingdom from 1915 to 2016. Scientific Data, 4, 170100. https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2017.100
Haigh, I.D., Dornbusch, U., Brown, J., Lyddon, C., Nicholls, R.J., Penning-Roswell, E., & Sayers, P. (2020). Climate change impacts on coastal flooding relevant to the UK and Ireland. MCCIP Science Review 2022. DOI: 10.14465/2022.reu02.cfl
Hall, A. (2011). The rise of blame and recreancy in the United Kingdom: A cultural, political and scientific autopsy of the North Sea flood of 1953. Environment and History, 17(3), 379–408. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41303521
Hall, A. (2015). Plugging the gaps: The North Sea flood of 1953 and the creation of a national coastal warning system. Journal of Public Management & Social Policy, 22(2), 8. Retrieved from https://digitalscholarship.tsu.edu/jpmsp/vol22/iss2/8
HM Government. (2020, July). Flood and coastal erosion risk management (Policy Statement). Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs. Retrieved from https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5f1adc7dd3bf7f596b135ac8/flood-coastal-erosion-policy-statement.pdf
House of Lords. (2019, April). The Future of Seaside Towns (HL Paper 320). Select Committee on Regenerating Seaside Towns and Communities, The House of Lords. Retrieved from https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201719/ldselect/ldseaside/320/320.pdf
Jasanoff, S. (2010). A new climate for society. Theory, Culture & Society, 27(2-3), 233–253. DOI: 10.1177/0263276409361497
Jenkins, K., Ford, A., Robson, C., & Nicholls, R.J. (2022). Identifying adaptation ‘on the ground’: Development of a UK adaptation Inventory. Climate Risk Management, 36, 100430. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2022.100430
Kantamaneni, K., Rice, L., Du, X., Allali, B., & Yennet, K. (2022). Are current UK coastal defences good enough for tomorrow? An assessment of vulnerability to coastal erosion. Coastal Management, 50(2). https://doi.org/10.1080/08920753.2022.2022971
Kazimierczuk, K., Henderson, C., Duffy, K., Hanif, S., Bhattacharya, S., Biswas, S., Jacroux, E., Preziuso, D., Wu, D., Bhatnagar, D., & Tarekegne, B. (2023). A socio-technical assessment of marine renewable energy potential in coastal communities. Energy Research and Social Science, 100, 103098. DOI: 10.1016/j.erss.2023.103098
Kelly, M. (2018). The Thames Barrier: Climate Change, Shipping and the Transition to a New Envirotechnical Regime. In Agar, J. & Ward, J. (Eds.) Histories of Technology, the Environment and Modern Britain (pp.206-229). University College London, London: UCL Press. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/j.ctvqhsmr.15.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A2a8f0b5ed23614439186d876d7fc078d
Leafe, R., Pethick, J., & Townend, I. (1998). Realizing the benefits of shoreline management. The Geographical Journal, 164(3), 282-290. https://doi.org/10.2307/3060617
Ledoux, L., Cornell, S., O’Riordan, T., Harvey, R., & Banyard, L. (2005). Towards sustainable flood and coastal management: Identifying drivers of, and obstacles to, managed realignment. Land Use Policy, 22(2), 129-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2004.03.001
Lim, B. & Spanger-Siegfried, E. (2004). Adaptation Policy Frameworks for Climate Change: Developing Strategies, Policies and Measures. Cambridge University Press.
Lumbroso, D. M. & Vinet, F. (2011). A comparison of the causes, effects and aftermaths of the coastal flooding of England in 1953 and France in 2010. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 11, 2321–2333, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-11-2321-2011
Martin, S.A., Rautshaw, R.M., Bolt, R., Parkinson, C.L., & Seigel, R.A. (2017). Adapting coastal management to climate change: Mitigating our shrinking shorelines. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 81(6), 982–89. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26607395
Masselink, G., Russell, P., Rennie, A., Brooks, S., & Spencer, T. (2020). Impacts of climate change on coastal geomorphology and coastal erosion relevant to the coastal and marine environment around the UK. MCCIP Science Review 2020, 158–189. DOI: 10.14465/2020.arc08.cgm
McDowell, L. & Bonner-Thompson, C. (2019). The other side of coastal towns: Young men’s precarious lives on the margins of England. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, 52(5). https://doi.org/10.1177/0308518X19887968
McLaughlin, S. & Bann, E. (2002). Human Use and Management of the Northern Ireland Coast. In Knight, J. (Ed) Field Guide to the Coastal Environments of Northern Ireland (pp.16-25). University of Ulster.
Meijer, K. & Böhle, A.-S. (2024, September 12). Climate change adaptation in areas beyond government control: opportunities and limitations. SIPRI Insights on Peace and Security, 2024/02. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.55163/RQKS8098
Milligan, J., O’Riordan, T., Nicholson-Cole, S.A., Watkinson, A.R. (2009). Nature conservation for future sustainable shorelines: Lessons from seeking to involve the public. Land Use Policy, 26(2), 203-213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2008.01.004
Pontee, N.I., Burgess, K., Hosking, A., & Parsons, A. (2008). Achieving Sustainable Shoreline Management. Paper presented at COPEDEC VII: the 7th Conference on Coast and Port Engineering in Developing Countries, Dubai, UAE. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260087181_Achieving_sustainable_shoreline_management
Sayers, P., Moss, C., Carr, S., & Payo, A. (2022). Responding to climate change around England's coast - the scale of the transformational challenge. Ocean & Coastal Management, 225, 106187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2022.106187
Social Market Foundation. (2017, September 4). Britain’s coastal communities amongst worst performing areas for earnings, jobs health and education. Retrieved from https://www.smf.co.uk/britains-coastal-communities-amongst-worst-performing-areas-earnings-jobs-health-education/#:~:text=Britain's%20coastal%20communities%20are%20among,non%2Dcoastal%20communities%20has%20grown.
Wadey, M.P., Haigh, I.D., Nicholls, R.J., Brown, J.M., Horsburgh, K., Carroll, K., Gallop, S.L., Mason, T., & Bradshaw, E. (2015). A comparison of the 31 January - 1 February 1953 and 5-6 December 2013 coastal flood events around the UK. Front. Mar. Sci., 2, 84. DOI: 10.3389/fmars.2015.00084
Waverley, J.A. (1954). Report of the departmental committee on coastal flooding (Cmd.
9165). London: HMSO.
Weyrich, P. (2016). Barriers to Climate Change Adaptation in Urban Areas in Germany (Report 26). Hamburg, Germany: Climate Service Center Germany (GERICS). Retrieved from https://www.climate-service-center.de/imperia/md/content/csc/report_26.pdf
Wyn, L.C. (2022). ‘The fight for Fairbourne’ - A Welsh study of environmental harm and its victims. Criminological Encounters, 5(1). DOI: 10.26395/CE22050104
Young, D. & Essex, S. (2020). Climate change adaptation in the planning of England’s coastal urban areas: Priorities, barriers and future prospects. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 63(5), 912-934. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2019.1617680
Zsamboky, M., Fernández-Bilbao, A., Smith, D., Knight, J., & Allan, J. (2011). Impacts of climate change on disadvantaged UK coastal communities. Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
Visual sources
Cover image: Turner, J.M.W. (c.1833/34). Wreckers -- Coast of Northumberland, with a Steam-Boat Assisting a Ship off Shore [painting]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Mallord_William_Turner_-_Wreckers_--_Coast_of_Northumberland,_with_a_Steam-Boat_Assisting_a_Ship_off_Shore_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg
Figure 1: Ti, M. (2020). People holding white printer paper during daytime photo [photograph]. Unsplash. https://unsplash.com/photos/people-holding-white-printer-paper-during-daytime-pJLmJ7UxPwI
Figure 2: Gubler, D. (2015). GWR Class 43 HST Dawlish [photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:GWR_Class_43_HST_Dawlish.jpg
Figure 3: Burniak, R. (2017). Thames Barrier long exposure [photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thames_Barrier_long_exposure.jpg
Figure 4: Billan, A. (2022). A beach with rocks and a hill photo [photograph]. Unsplash. https://unsplash.com/photos/a-beach-with-rocks-and-a-hill-63OjbN6uqbg
Figure 5: Searle, M. (2006). North Wales WWII defences, Fairbourne - pillbox & anti-tank blocks (2) - geograph.org.uk - 4973130 [photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:North_Wales_WWII_defences,_Fairbourne_-_pillbox_%26_anti-tank_blocks_(2)_-_geograph.org.uk_-_4973130.jpg
Figure 6: Hodge, K.M. (2020). Landscape photography of mountain photo [photograph]. Unsplash. https://unsplash.com/photos/landscape-photography-of-mountain-BRs1AHmK9zo
留言