Sacred Spaces: Architecture of Greek Temples and Theaters

Foreword

The spirit of human curiosity and vision for a better world has long been the driving force behind technological advancements that have propelled civilizations toward progress and innovation. The relationship between technology, people, events, and social systems is a continuous, interwoven cycle of dependence and influence. People of the ancient world heavily relied on their environment and its resources, prompting them to develop technologies as a means to control and shape their surroundings. These earliest technologies were based on observable natural phenomena, to which they adapted to accordingly. Over time, humanity's growing understanding of nature's technology enabled the harnessing and control of the environment around them. 

The making of such complex technology in a seemingly simple world was the result of dedicated focus on detail, alongside observation, trial and error, and ingenuity from the early individuals who crafted techniques and technologies, many of which continue to be used today. Tool and technologies that were developed in the ancient world came to impact the development of culture, economy, politics, and religion shaped the very fabric of their societies and laid the groundwork for future civilizations. From the earliest tools fashioned by our ancestors to the monumental achievements of classical antiquity, ancient technologies defy the constraints of space and time, leaving an indelible mark on the course of history. Fuelled by necessity, curiosity, and at times, conflict, these innovations served as a testament to the symbiotic relationship between human creativity, innovation, and the environment. 

Echoes of Antiquity: Ancient Greek Temples and Theaters

In ancient Greece, the construction of temples and theaters exemplied a profound synthesis of environmental ingenuity, technological advancement, and societal values that  epitomized the sophisticated use of natural resources and construction technologies that characterized much of Greek architecture. Harnessing the resources provided by the natural landscape, from locally quarried stone to timber sourced from nearby forests, ancient Greek architects transformed the physical world into sacred spaces that reflected the essence of their culture and ideology. Designed with an acute awareness of their environmental context and the sacred landscape, temples were erected as homes for the deities that served as focal points for rituals and offerings, which were thought to maintain favor and communication with the divine. Theaters, often built adjacent to temples, were constructed to exploit the natural acoustics of their surrounding terrain and provided stages for dramatic performances that were as much religious rituals as they were artistic endeavors and expressions of communal identity. Ancient Greeks did not merely visit temples and theaters; they engaged with them as sacred venues where divine worship was intricately woven with every aspect of daily life—from governance and law to art and rhetoric. These structures were not merely monuments of stone and mortar; they were embodiments of Greek customs, rituals, and religious fervor. Every aspect of their design and function was imbued with spiritual significance, reinforcing the interconnected nature of humanity, divinity, and the natural world. In these sacred spaces, every architectural element and theatrical production became an expression of Greek customs, beliefs, and communal identity. Every actor and worshiper participated in a revered tradition that was as much a celebration of divine presence as it was a reflection of ancient Greek society. Thus, temples and theaters emerged not only as physical embodiments of divine worship but also as enduring symbols of the harmonious coexistence of environment, technology, and society in ancient Greece.

The ancient Greeks had a keen understanding of their environment and the natural cycles of the earth, which they had used as inspiration to develop new tools and technologies. Often, these were derived by virtue of necessity; the Bronze Age civilizations needed means for harvesting and processing grains, weapons for warfare, and tools for construction. While the available tools, both simple and complex, were crucial to the development of their structures and technologies, the “environment and the availability and nature of building materials played a considerable role in the evolution of structures.” (Sherwood et al., 2020, p. 266). By the Early Bronze Age, the ancient people of the Mediterranean world were utilizing levers, rollers or wheels, and wedges—three of the five simple machines available to the ancient Greeks that would aid in the accomplishment of architectural feats. By the seventh century B.C., the pulley had appeared, and in the Hellenistic period, the screw was invented. The compound pulley, which allowed the enormous multiplication of force, likely followed not long after, and was perhaps spawned by the construction of early Greek stone temples (Sherwood et al., 2020). 

Figure 1: The Course of Empire: The Consummation of Empire (Cole, 1835-6)

The Greeks had realized that complex machines and devices depended on the very simple mechanical principles embodied in these five basic forms. By combining these seemingly simplistic devices, they developed more advanced technologies that made construction more efficient and subsequently less time-consuming, enabling the construction of more sophisticated and permanent structures (Wilson, 2009). Almost all major Greek constructs employed a simple system of posts and lintels.  The ‘post’ is the upright column or wall that supports the ‘lintel’, which is the element meant to span openings or support the roofing of the building (“Greek Architecture”, 2005). As they began to develop methods of quarrying stone and both the transportation and the handling of large stone masses, the Greeks became proficient in this style of construction. Ingenious devices, such as the crane, were invented for lifting and hoisting of building materials to set them in place at a height. Systems were developed to lift stone by employing rope rigging to lift while levers were used to place them. Though seemingly self-evident today, these devices improved on the ancient technique of moving stone to a height using sleds and ramps, representing significant technological advances (“Greek Architecture”, 2005).

The tools employed for most architectural work were considered a stately technology. Architects and engineers used cords for measuring, with squares, plumb bobs, and levels to maintain the accuracy of the construction. Iron tools were efficient in shaping marble and limestone, though harder stone could only be carved with other stones (Sherwood et al., 2020).  Masons employed hammers, axes, files, and chisels to work the stone. Iron tools were adequate to shape marble and limestone (“Greek Architecture”, 2005). Ultimately, the use of technology created structures that defied the laws of nature as they were known by the ancient people thus far. Increasing economic prosperity enjoyed by many polis (city-states) and their colonies led to developments in large-scale architecture in the sixth century B.C.E., especially in Greek temples and sanctuaries (Nardo, 2009). Beginning in the fifth century B.C., the monumental and highly distinctive architectural style widely known as classical architecture, was developed by the Greeks, and by the 400s B.C., it had reached its peak (Lovano, 2019). Employing locally sourced materials such as marble and limestone, these structures, particularly temples and theaters, were not only feats of engineering but also central to the religious and social fabric of ancient Greek society.

Figure 2: View of the Flower of Greece (Ahlborn, 1836)

Each Greek city-state worshipped several gods, but it gave special devotion to a local patron deity who was believed to watch over the community. The city’s patron deity was thought to watch over, guide, and protect the community from harm as long as the local people offered proper respect, rituals, and offerings (Carnagie, 2016). It seemed only natural, therefore, to provide the god with a suitable shelter within the city, to ensure the divine patron remained close and available. Such shelters took the form of religious temples, which the Greeks viewed as sacred places along with their surrounding grounds that were imbued with the presence and power of the gods they honored (Nardo, 2002). The temple in Greek culture was not a building to accommodate groups of worshipers; people believed that gods lived inside the temples, so as a means to respect their privacy, no public worship took place inside. The rites and sacrifices made to the gods were carried out on the altar, which was often erected on the east side, in front of the steps outside the temple (Carnagie, 2016). Temples, whether large or small, richly decorated or modest and plain, were pillars of civic pride and community activity. The graceful columns and elegant proportions of these ancient structures became the source of inspiration for many architects in the generations that followed. The development of this monumental architecture ultimately saw the needs for the creation of elaborate and beautiful designs that would be representative of and only befitting for the gods they honored.

The oldest Greek temples were small, hut-like structures constructed of perishable materials such as timber, sun-dried mudbrick, and thatch. Though none have survived, small pottery models of such buildings have been unearthed, which shows that the earliest temples resembled the domestic dwellings people had built for themselves. These temples consisted of one main room and a porch, though they were typically much larger. Each temple had a front porch with a triangular pediment—the gable formed at the end of a roof slope over a portico—supported by two or four wooden columns (Nardo, 2007b). A statue of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated could be found in a large, rectangular chamber called the cella, located at the center of the building (“Temples”, 1998). The side walls of this room extended outward to form the pediment at one or both ends of the entryway. Early in the Archaic period, Greek architects began to include more columns, lengthening the line of columns into a colonnade that would wrap around the entire structure. The earliest temple of this type is dedicated to the goddess Hera on the island of Samos dating back to the 8th century B.C. (“Greek Architecture”, 2005). The characteristic features of Greek temples seldom changed over the following centuries, varying mostly in size and decorative detail. However, the materials employed in their construction continued to evolve.

During the 600s B.C., Greek temple designers introduced two significant changes in the development of architecture: they began using large, shaped blocks of stone rather than wood, and developed the practice of ornamenting the outside of temples with reliefs and statues (“Temples”, 1998). Like other technologies developed in the ancient world, this was driven in part by necessity, a change dependent on available technologies and economic conditions. Roofing materials, originally consisting of thatch laid down above wooden timbers, was eventually replaced with roofing tiles made of pottery. The wooden columns were not strong enough to support the weight of these heavy tiles, and as a result, stone columns came into use which could better support the added weight (Carnagie, 2016). Although writing over 700 years after the temple of Hera at Olympia was initially built, Greek traveler and philosopher Pausanias reflects on the transition from wood to stone. In his work Description of Greece, he states, “In the back room (opisthodomos) one of two columns is made of oak [the rest are stone].” (Pausanias c. 150 B.C./2020). As the Greeks grew more prosperous, and with the advent of the Iron Age, they were equipped with better tools, enabling the construction of larger, more durable structures and facilitating the easier shaping or manipulation of stone. By the middle of the sixth century B.C., temples made entirely out of stone became commonplace everywhere in Greece (Nardo, 2002).

Figure 3: The Temple of Hera at Paestum (Fabris, ca. late 1770s)

The Greeks became proficient in quarrying and stoneworking—a technology largely developed by the Late Bronze Age and facilitated by iron tools in the following centuries. Skillful stonecutters and experts at building with finely shaped stone, the Greeks favored marble as the primary material for temples and monumental architecture. Because most quarries were open pits, it proved safer to retrieve marble, as it allowed for proper ventilation and lighting (Humphrey et al., 2020). Once large blocks of stone were quarried, they were transported to worksites on throughout the Greek lands on large wagons pulled by oxen, or in more distant locations, by ships (“Building Materials and Methods”).

The appeal of marble lies in its aesthetic and beauty. While the beauty of marble is apparent in its striking appearance and varied hues, its aesthetic value also integrated functionality; marble was the ideal material for creating resilient and elegant architectural features that would withstand the test of time. Although it is more challenging to work with, the end result is of significantly higher quality. The color and texture of marble varied tremendously, enough so that the ancient Greeks went to great lengths to acquire different kinds. They mined in various locations and investing significant sums of money in transporting it from the ends of the known world. As a result, costs soared, necessitating the use of multiple oxen to transport the heavy loads of marble. This method of transportation proved efficient enough to carry 22,000 tons of marble 10 miles across the plain of Eleusis to Athens in order to build the Parthenon on the Acropolis (Burford, 1965, p.33). Learning from the Egyptians, who had been building large stone monuments for centuries, the Greeks used ramps and rollers to move the quarried stone (“Temples”, 1998). Each block was delivered to the site of the temple larger than required to mediate any potential damage during transport, and to allow the masons to trim them to the exact size required.

Figure 4: The Acropolis at Athens (Leo von Klenze, 1846)

The use of cranes in the of Greek architecture continued to advance and was highly developed by the end of the sixth century. They developed a system of rope channels that allowed workers to suspend blocks from a hoist, place them, fit check, and lift again to adjust as needed (Hemans, 2015). Stonecutters carved blocks of various shapes and sizes, with square ones for building walls and thick cylinders that formed columns when stacked upon one another (“Temples”, 1998). By the 5th century, stone was likely more cost-effective than wood. As it was readily available, stone could be quarried in many areas of the Greek lands, whereas wood and timber had to be imported, incurring additional costs for the material itself and for labor and transportation (Humphrey et al., 2020). Despite this fact, because the construction of temples was somewhat occasional, and because it was so extraordinary as well as its religious and cultural significance, the cost of this undertaking ordeal was likely irrelevant to the economic prosperity of the city in which it was constructed (Burford, 1965). Regardless of the patron—whether the city, a sanctuary, an aristocrat, devotees of a Panhellenic cult, or a private citizen—the cost was considered insignificant.

In the construction of temples and other monumental structures during the Archaic and Classical periods, architects of ancient Greece adopted some standard styles and architectural features, most frequently employed in public buildings. While there is no such thing as a ‘typical’ Greek temple, there is significant conformity between them. All temples display columns and statues. However, there were distinct styles that developed over the course of time, notably the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian architectural orders (Carnagie, 2016). The first two were used solely for the construction of temples, though over time, architects adapted these orders to other buildings, including large public altars, fountain houses, treasuries, and meeting halls (Carnagie, 2016). As all three orders featured rows of columns along the exterior of the building that rested on a platform and supported the roof, it was the arrangement, design, and decoration of the columns and their details that distinguished one order from the next. The first to develop was the Doric order. It included a stepped platform and columns to support the entablature, the most complex part of the order featuring three main divisions. The entablature featured row of stone blocks resting on the columns known as the architrave, a horizontal band of carvings or sculpture called the frieze, and the cornice—an ornamental horizontal molding at the top of a wall or building (Nardo, 2002). In the Doric order, the frieze is not continuous. Instead, it has separate, rectangular panels called metopes that could be left plain but often depicted illustrations of gods acting out scenes from well-known mythological tales. These metopes were divided by triglyphs—single blocks with their faces carved to resemble three vertical bars (“Greek Architecture”, 2005). Stately and the most simple in design, Doric temples featured fluted columns that were carved with a series of shallow vertical grooves and tapered toward the top (Halfmann, 2000). The top of the columns, known as the capital, consisted of a two simple parts: a plain square slab and a rounded stone cushion, while the bottom of the column had no decorative base.

Figure 5: Illustration of the Classical Orders of Ancient Greek Columns (n.d.)

While the Doric Order was developing in the mainland of Greece, the Ionic order was also emerging, which followed a different and distinctive design scheme. Unlike the Doric Order, the capitals of the Ionic order were more elaborate and elegant in design, each decorated with large, double scroll-like swirls known as volutes, and included decorative vases (Nardo, 2002). The Ionic order also had taller, slender columns surmounted by said volutes, each with twenty-four flutes along its length that were deeper than those seen in Doric columns. Additionally, the Ionic frieze did not include metopes or triglyphs, but was instead a continuous, sculpted band of panels atop the colonnade to form the frieze (Carnegie, 2016).

Mankind continued to draw inspiration from nature for technological development and architecture, resulting in the development of the third and most ornate order: The Corinthian. Emerging in the fourth century B.C., the first use of this order is said to have been discovered in Corinth, for which the order is named, by a man named Callimachus who was praised for the elegance and delicacy of his marble art (Sherwood et al., 2020). While passing by a graveside monument, he noticed an acanthus plant, and its young leaves growing around a basket which had been placed upon it. According to Roman architect and military engineer Vitruvius, Callimachus was “delighted with the style and the novelty of the form”, and thus “he made columns after that example for the Corinthians and established their proportions. Then he assigned the rules for the Corinthian order in finished works” (On Architecture ca. 50-26 B.C./2020, 4.1.9-10). The capitals of Corinthian columns were a more elegant variant of the Ionic order, covered with curled acanthus masonry leaves. Though its use was more seldom than that of the other orders by the Greeks, the Romans were greatly impressed by its complexity and elegance and adopted it for use in their own temples and public buildings over the course of the following centuries. All three orders survived the fall of the Greco-Roman civilizations during the fifth and sixth centuries A.D., and many centuries later, architects of the Italian Renaissance adopted these three orders and applied them to the interiors and exteriors of all kinds of public and private structures (Carnagie, 2016). These orders remain in use even in modern times, frequently seen in banks, government buildings, private mansions and other large-scale structures.

Figure 6: Capital of one of the antae from the temple of Apollo at Didyma (Pars, 1795).

In the fifth century B.C., the refinement of the relationship between architectural elements and proportions were effectively resolved resulting in the “classical” look of Greek temple architecture. The ideal number of columns, on the ends and sides, was resolved at six to thirteen, though that number may vary slightly in each temple (“Greek Architecture”, 2005) Also noted by Vitruvius’ On Architecture (ca. 50-26 B.C.E./2020), the size, style, and setting of the temple created small but detectable visual problems for the ancient architect, and adjustments were necessary to fine-tune the proportions of the temple. Because the columns on the corners were created as straight lines, they were “cut into by the air” and “seem more slender to the viewers” (On Architecture ca. 50-26 B.C.E./2020, 3.3.11-13, 3.4.5), creating an optical illusion in which the temple appears to taper or curve slightly. To accommodate this distortion, Vitruvius suggested that architects should employ a technique he referred to as entasis, in which adjustments are added to the thickness of the columns. What escapes the eye would be compensated by a swelling, created in the middle of the shaft of a column where the curve would have appeared, causing it to instead appear straight (Sherwood et. al., 2020). The base of the temple must also be convex toward the middle, as it would appear concave if leveled properly. Entasis varies in different temples, and is not found in some. It can also vary greatly even within the same site location, a characteristic of the Acropolis of Athens. In the temple of Athena Nike and the east portico of the Erechtheum, there is no use of entasis; however, the north porch of the Erechtheum and the Ionic columns of the Propylea both employ the technique, and in both cases, they happen deviate from straight lines by less than one quarter of an inch (Bruno, 1996). The amplification of entasis post the fifth century exemplifies the widespread trend towards a more robust style evident in Greek architecture. This refinement in the arrangement of architectural components and proportions ultimately culminated in the iconic "classical" appearance of Greek temple architecture. It is hardly an exaggeration to claim that no two temples were identical in plan; the structures were often the result of different needs or rituals, serving functional, personal, or practical purposes.

Among the best-preserved examples of the Doric order is the temple dedicated to the goddess Aphaia on the island of Aegina, southwest of Athens, and important representation of the developing refinement on Greek architecture. Originally built around 580 B.C., it did not yet feature the ideal 13 columns, and instead had 6 by 12, with the interior of the cella forming two rows of smaller columns supported by a smaller, second row above to support the roof (“Greek Architecture”, 2005). It is the first temple in which all of the columns display entasis, which afforded the architects the ability to construct a two-story colonnade (Watkin, 2005). The two-story interior was not unique to this temple, as it can also be found in the Temple of Hera at Paestum. Since it was not considered proper for exterior columns to be taller than the interior ones, the architects’ solution was to superimpose two levels of smaller columns to reach the height between the floor and the roof (“Greek Architecture”, 2005). Doric in style, the temple of Aphaia was built of local limestone faced with marble stucco, including marble tiles on the edges of the roof, as well as many ornamental features including water spouts shaped like lion heads and pedimental sculptures—exemplary of stylistic development—largely depicting Homeric battle scenes at Troy (Watkin, 2005). Positioned on a hilltop, this temple serves a reminder of the importance in selecting the location of a site; it was often chosen for its commanding height and view of the sea or surrounding landscape.

Another wonder of Greek grandeur, the temple of Artemis at Ephesus is representative of the knowledge of environmental limitations and the architect’s ability to manipulate the natural world to better suit their needs. The foundation of any temple was to be built in a structure as solid as possible, although if it was not found and the site was marshy or of loose earth, it had to be cleared and replaced with piles of alder, olive, or charred oak packed tightly together (Sherwood et al., 2020). In the case of the temple in Ephesus, a layer of charcoal was placed beneath the foundation to create a solid layer that water could not penetrate, as the chosen site was wet. Pliny the Elder (ca. 23-79/2020) in his work Natural History adds that it was constructed “on marshy ground so that it would not be affected by earthquakes or threatened by subsidence,” and to avoid setting the foundations of a temple of such size on unstable grounds, “they were underlaid with packed charcoal and then with fleeces of wool” (36.95-97).

Figure 7: The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus (n.d.)

Beginning c. 550 B.C., the temple dedicated to Artemis was built of marble, with a wooden roof covered with terracotta tiles, taking about 120 years to complete. The temple was Ionic in style and tremendous in size, doubling the dimensions of other Greek temples including the Parthenon at the Acropolis in Athens. According to Pliny, it measured 425 feet in length and was 225 feet wide, with 127 columns arranged in rows of two on all four sides, each of which were 60 feet high, some of which were decorated with relief carving (Sherwood, et al., 2020). The columns were Ionic in style, with each one estimated to have weighed 24 tons (“Greek Architecture”, 2005). The feat of Greek engineering prowess which allowed builders to move such heavy weights into their respective places led the people to believe it was a actually the work of Artemis herself (Jordan, 2014). The temple was also known for the exquisite works of art that adorned it; the decorative frieze depicted scenes involving the Amazons, who were thought to have sought shelter from Hercules at Ephesus, as believed in Greek mythology. Destroyed by a deliberate fire in the 4th century, B.C., the temple was rebuilt, and survived until the Gothic invasion in late antiquity.

The most famous temples of the Classical Age were constructed during the Athenian statesman Pericles’ ambitious building program during the late fifth century B.C. (“Temples”, 2005). At its peak, the Athenians built the most famous of all Greek temples: the Parthenon. Crowning the Acropolis, the Parthenon is considered the most exquisite structure ever built by many modern architects (“Bruno, 1996). The function of the Parthenon was two-fold: it served as a place of worship and shelter for Athena but was also considered a masterpiece of Grecian art and architecture, which embodied Athenian power, prosperity, and piety. Its monumental beauty was so great that it prompted Pericles to accurately proclaim, “Future ages will wonder at us, as the present age wonders at us now.” (Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War 2.41).

The Parthenon featured eight columns on each end and seventeen along the length, which ultimately measured 237 feet long, 110 feet wide, and 65 feet tall (Carnagie, 2016). It was built with extra width, likely to accommodate the colossal gold and ivory statue of Athena that stood within the cella, reaching almost 40 feet tall (“Greek Architecture”, 2005). Stone used for the construction of the temple could be quarried on or around the site of Athens, however, the Greeks ensured they did not weaken or deface the sacred hill of Athena by extracting stone from several of the other hills. For this monument, about 30,000 pounds of stone were needed (Nardo, 2002). One stone of particular beauty was from the Hill of the Nymphs in the northwestern region, appearing blueish-grey with a hint of pale, red-brown. Though laborious to retrieve, the use of the native stone in the interior walls of the Parthenon had a special appropriateness; on the Acropolis itself the walls and foundations seemed to almost grow from the native rock (Wycherley, 1974).

Figure 8: The Acropolis at Athens (Games, 2020)

The Parthenon also brings together aspects of both the Doric and Ionic orders. Its columns featured Doric capitals and a Doric frieze, though the Parthenon was also graced by the most celebrated Ionic frieze. Along the colonnade were ninety-two metopes which composed the Doric order, holding scenes carved in relief. The western-facing metopes depicted the Athenians in battle with the Amazons, while those on the south side illustrate the battle between the Lapiths and the Centaurs. Metopes on the eastern front showed the legendary mythical war of the Gigantomachy, and those on the north represented scenes from the Trojan War (Halfmann, 2000). High up on the inside of the outer colonnade, and difficult to see from ground level, was the continuous Ionic frieze that spanned the entire perimeter of the temple. It depicted hundreds of figures taking part in the Panathenaic procession—the central feature of the cities’ major festival in honor of Athena—subsequently converting a ritual of occasion into one that is timeless and personifies the conception of Athenian citizens as heroes (Carnagie, 2016).

Although the taller, slender columns and inclusion of a frieze give the Parthenon some Ionic touches, it is ostensibly a Doric temple. While the integration of elements from both orders was not necessarily a new development in ancient Greek architecture, it was seldom used, and bestowed upon this architectural masterpiece a delicate balance between practicality, functionality, and visual aesthetic. Such combinations of architectural styles became more common in buildings of the late Classical and early Hellenistic periods.

Figure 9: Pheidias Showing the Frieze of the Parthenon to his Friends (Alma-Tadema, 1868).

Also in the Acropolis, in the Ionic style is the Erechtheum, the most unusual structure on the site due to the nature of its irregular plan. The structure featured three inner chambers and three porticoes of different sizes, and on different levels (Halfmann, 2000). On the south side of the building were six columns that took the shape of human form, known as caryatids. These architectural supports replaced columns in support of the entablature, most often reflecting the figure of a woman, though on rare occasions, figures in the shape of men, called atlantes, were used (Bruno, 1996). The caryatids on the Acropolis of Athens are among the most well-known in ancient Greek temple construction.

Furthermore, the ancient Greeks named the various elements of the column to reflect human body parts. For instance, the capital is referred to as the head in Greek, and the base as a foot, which has led some scholars to perceive the column as an abstract representation of both the human figure and the deities which they represent (“Columns”, Moulton). Though many of the Greek temples that have survived to the present day are now almost entirely a stark light color of marble or stone, many bore vivid colors when they were originally constructed. Greek temple builders did not typically paint the columns and walls of temples, they rather focused on the details of the decorative carvings on atop the columns, roof, and ceilings (Nardo, 2009). Natural light reflected from the untouched marbled walls, while pigments of blue, red, and gold glistened, illuminated by the Mediterranean sun. Over centuries, however, the paints faded and chipped, leaving the structures that remain standing today entirely without color. The weathered stones of ancient Greek temples form a striking silhouette against the cerulean Greek sky, encapsulating the enduring beauty of these sacred sites and offers a glimpse into the spiritual and cultural significance of such architectural ingenuity. The sheer size and elaborate ornamentation of these temples exemplifies the heroic stature worthy of only the deities, and in this way, the or god or goddess for whom the temple was dedicated was eternal, rather than of the moment.

Figure 10: Erechtheion. The portico of caryatids. (Polenov, 1882)

Although the temple is the most significant architectural form of Greek construction, the Greeks built many other public buildings and structures of cultural importance. Perhaps the second most typical expression of Greek design is the theater, first developing in Athens during the fifth and sixth centuries B.C. (“Greek Architecture”, 2005). The earliest theaters were situated in the vicinity of sanctuaries, most notably the theater of Dionysus on the southern slope of the Acropolis, which was constructed immediately next to the temple dedicated to the very same god of wine and fertility. The exact origins of this art form are uncertain, though it appears to have evolved from the colorful rituals the ancient Greeks practiced when attending the worship of Dionysus (Carnagie, 2016). These rituals included a special form of verse known as the dithyramb, which at first seemed to reenact various myths about the life and adventures of Dionysus. As the dithyramb was chanted, a chorus of singing and dancing worshippers performed a circular dance around the altar of the deity (“Drama, Greek”, 1998). As time went on, the ceremonies and theatrical festivals expanded to include other gods as well as mortal heroes. With the establishment of a democratic government during the late sixth century B.C., the Athenian government formalized such performances by instituting theatrical festivals (Lovano, 2019). The performances took place only once a year on the festival day of the deity worshipped in the temple. This god was believed to be personally present at the festivals, which lasted from dawn until dusk, and the deity of worship was conveyed to the theater by a priest, for whom a seat of honor was reserved (Stricker, 1955). The theater itself, the actors, and all activities were considered sacred, and carried out at a sacred time. Therefore, performance was considered a religious duty and part of divine worship, rather than an act of free will.  

During these festivals, religious rituals and processions blended with the day-long performances of dithyrambs, tragedies, and comedies, all of which were religious expressions (Lovano, 2019). According to Greek legend, a poet named Thespis was part of a chorus performing a dithyramb in ca. 525 B.C., when he decided to step out in front of the chorus, singing lines of his own. The performance was no longer about the god, rather the Thespis acted as the god himself, and in doing so, he ‘invented’ the actor (Nardo, 1995). In honor of this legendary contribution, actors today are called thespians. For the fifth century B.C.E. Greeks, theater was as much an educational and religious experience as it was entertainment.

Like temples, no two theaters were identical, but they shared basic characteristics that were featured in every structure: a stage on which the actors would play their role, an intervening space for the choir or orchestra, and an amphitheater for the spectators (Stricker, 1955). The theatron, or body of the auditorium, consisted of a semicircular arrangement of stone rows facing the orchestra, or “dancing place,” where the actors would perform. The rows of the seating area gently ascended downwards and to allow participants to hear and see the performance taking place on a lower level (Carnagie, 2016). The most conspicuous feature was the amphitheater. Prior to the fourth century B.C., they were made out of wood, and could be dismantled at the end of the performance. They were only replaced by stone when the public became more numerous and the structures were prone to collapse (Stricker, 1955).Each theater also featured an altar that had been placed in the middle of the orchestra, on which they would make a sacrifice before and after the ceremony. As theater developed, the number of actors increased, requiring a stage with a backing of some form. Behind the orchestra rose the skene (“scene-building”), which served three main functions: it was a backdrop, a place from which the actors could make their entrances and exits, and a storage place for props (Nardo, 1995). Early Greek theaters employed wooden skenes, but in the fourth and third centuries B.C, a stone skene replaced the older wooden ones in most of the great theaters (Gardner, 1899). Not too long after, the wooden stage in front of the skene was also superseded by one of stone.

Figure 11: Depiction of the Theater and Temple of Apollo in Delphi, Greece (n.d.)

Also, an important part of the Greek stage was the periacti: an upright, three-sided structure which turned on a pivot, placed by the two side doors of the stage, and had a bearing on each device which could be presented to the spectators as an indicator of a change in scene (Gardner, 1899). When it was time for a new play or scene, the periacti or their pictures could be removed quickly and replaced, giving fresh localities. As there was no curtain on the stage, it was necessary that change of scenery had to be carried out under the view of the spectators. The periacti enabled Greeks to do this simply and to the ancient Greek audience, intelligently. Through this technology, the ancient Greeks transformed visual storytelling, turning what we might now regard as rudimentary mechanics into a spectacle of ingenuity and dramatic fluidity. The periacti facilitated these dynamic scene changes, and allowed for a diverse array of settings to be vividly illustrated within the same performance space. During a performance, periacti depicting a pillar or a statue might indicate the temple of any given deity, whereas a mountain would be represented by a rock, perhaps depicting a goat or two. One might recognize the sea by a waved line painted with a blue color below it, and a dolphin leaping above it; a reclining river-god holding a vessel of water might represent a river, as is very common among ancient art (Gardner, 1899).

In the fifth century B.C.E., other technological innovations appeared as well, offering special effects designed to dazzle the spectators. One such device was the eccyclema or “tableau machine”, which consisted of a stage mechanism consisting of a low platform that could be pushed or rolled onto stage by wheels, to reveal an interior or some off stage scene (“Drama, Greek”, 1998). This platform was used for important props, and occasionally for actors themselves, such as dying characters in a tragedy. Violent acts and murders typically unfolded offstage in ancient dramas, with the audience learning of them through messengers or other characters who described the events. However, the tableau machine provided a stark departure from this convention, affording playwrights and actors the opportunity to directly depict such moments, heightening the sense of shock and immediacy into the performance (Carnagie, 2016) On the platforms, actors would appear frozen in a striking pose, representing the murderer and the victim. Because violence was forbidden from the stage, it is believed by some that the bodies of actual murdered individuals were displayed on the eccyclema. The other device employed was a crane, carrying actors through the air as if they were flying—as the gods often appeared (Nardo, 1995). Some ancient critics accused playwrights of solving difficult problems in their stories by having gods descend as a means to set the plot right (“Drama, Greek”, 1998). Other devices supplied claps of thunder and flashes of lighting.

Actors of both Greek tragedies and comedies wore long robes, elevated shoes, and masks in order to be more easily heard and identifiable by members of the large crowds. Masks in particular were significant as the Greeks realized each actor could portray multiple characters simply by switching them off stage (Carnagie, 2016). These masks were often made out of real hair, wool or leather, and on occasionally terracotta, with the mouths typically left open, acting as a megaphone. Spacious and versatile, the theater provided a setting for the art form in which most effects were suggested by spoken words, despite advanced technologies developed to enhance visual comprehension. As decoration was limited to the architectural embellishments of the skene, Greek theater remained rhetorical rather than spectacular in its effects. Most of the narrative was conveyed through words, as the theater was a platform that required audience to rely more on what they heard than what they could see (Nardo, 1995). To compensate for the lack of visual impact, the Greeks relied on the natural abilities of their environment to enhance acoustics. The acoustic brilliance of ancient Greek theaters was a direct result of their strategic use of the natural landscape and locally available materials. Amphitheaters were constructed where they could take advantage of the natural hillside which provided the necessary elevation and shape, a feat that would have been otherwise difficult to achieve if not for the topography of the lands. The semicircular design of these theaters was essential for optimal sound distribution. The seating area, made from hard, resonant materials like the famed Pentelikon marble—also employed in the construction of the Acropolis—was also instrumental in the amplification of sound throughout the venue. Theaters also contained copper vessels, called echaeia in Greek, that were placed under the seats, which increased the power and volume of the actors' voices, and in doing so, reaching the audience more clearly (Sherwood et al., 2020). Additionally, the open design of the theaters, often facing the sea, might have benefited from prevailing winds carrying the sounds.

Figure 12: Mosaic depicting theatrical masks of Tragedy and Comedy (2nd century, A.D.)

The Greeks understood all too well the power of storytelling, and wanted to control those narratives that were frequently promulgated among the people. Every important city had its own theater; in places where they were absent, plays were acted out on portable stages that replicated the main features of permanent structures. During this period, the first actors' union was established, known as the Artists of Dionysus and based on the island of Delos. This organization set the employment terms for its members, negotiated contracts, and worked to establish professional standards (“Drama”, 1988). Prominent actors of the time even travelled from all corners of the Greek lands to perform at various festivals and earn a substantial income.  Beyond mere technical advancements, the most significant transformation occurred in the perspective and approach of the new theater.  Previously characterized by a formal and conventional presentation, drama in the developing theater adopted a far more realistic and detailed aesthetic. In the fifth century, theatrical settings were largely imagined by audiences, inspired by the narrative cues of the playwright. By the fourth century, the stage's skene, with its characteristic doors, came to be recognized as a realistic facade of a street lined with houses (Gardner, 1899). As the subject matter of dramas turned to more ordinary and everyday narratives, the portrayal itself became markedly more realistic. As a result, the architecture of theaters largely mirrored shifts in both literature and culture. Theater wasn't merely a form of entertainment; it was a sacred space where myths and legends were brought to life, serving as a communal ritual that reinforced shared beliefs and values. The construction of grand theaters across Greek cities symbolized not only their cultural greatness but also their devotion to the gods and their commitment to preserving the collective memory of their civilization. Through the performance of tragedies and comedies, the Greeks celebrated their myths, honored their heroes, and grappled with timeless moral and existential questions, all of which fostered a sense of community and identity.

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Visual Sources