The Linguistics and Cultural Dynamics of Swearing: Between Language and Magic

Swearing, as a form of linguistic expression, likely dates back to the origins of language itself. Often understood as the use of words that ‘have the potential to be offensive, inappropriate, objectionable, or unacceptable in any given social context’ (Beers Fägersten, 2012, p. 3), it remains a complex phenomenon, defying precise definitions due to the difficulty in pinpointing its exact criteria. Even in languages without explicit profane words, such as Japanese, everyday phrases are used to achieve a similar function. (Padovan, 2018, p. 11). In contemporary societies, swearing is associated with taboos and prohibitions, while its use is interdicted in the professional and public spheres. It is linked to manners and class since many assume it represents the speech of the lowly educated, linguistically poor, working-class people. (Padovan, 2018). However, that is a simplified view since swearing is a linguistic expression whose role in the language presents a more complex social studies field. As an anthropological, sociological, psychological, and linguistic category, swearing is an intriguing element of speech that plays multiple roles and can be explored in various contexts.

The following article will introduce the study of swearing and cursing language, particularly emphasizing the connection between language and magic. The research, mostly rooted in comparative linguistics and ethnography, will position swearing as a vehicle of negotiation either between people or spirits, and focus on its more positive connotations, like emotional healing or a particular manner of confirming friendly and intimate relationships. It will cover the sociological and psychological interpretations and then delve into linguistic and anthropological research that links the practice to magical origin, particularly focusing on the example of Serbo-Croatian, while presenting the previous research on the topic as well as the methodologies and interpretations. 

Social and Psychological Purposes of Swearing

The root of swearing is tied to the formation of a socio-cultural whole or society in which physical violence between the members of the same community is unacceptable (Padovan, 2018, pp. 1-7). The desired violence is diverted to the world of symbolism and directed at what the members of the said community deem respectable, beloved, or even sacred. Morality, social norms, and sanctity are vital for the development of the use of profanities since without those categories, people would have nothing to swear at (Padovan, 2018, pp. 1-7). Therefore, it is impossible to separate the development of swearing from sophisticated cultures and most notably, religion. Apart from verbal aggression, swearing has other social and psychological purposes. The linguistic practice is often seen as adding to friendly conversations, denoting intimacy between participants, or expressing positive emotions such as admiration or excitement (Padovan, 2018, p. 11). Swearing can have positive effects on mental health, as it helps release negative emotions and acts as a form of emotional catharsis (Stevens, 2024). For instance, research into aphasia ―the loss or impairment of the power to use or comprehend words usually resulting from brain damage― has established that spontaneous cursing is related to the functions of the right hemisphere, which suggests a neural connection between emotions and swearing (Van Lancker and Klein, 1990; Jing-Schmidt, 2019, p. 391). Swearing soothes the psychological tension of the individual and behaves as a signifier of tight social clicks based on closeness. Moreover, it offers, to the negative, an illustration of what societies deem proper in a variety of aspects, like morality, class, and social status. Considering its different purposes, it is an inescapable aspect of studying language within cultural contexts, as well as understanding cultures in their socio-historical complexity.        

             Figure 1: A comedic depiction of flatuence. (n.d.). Medium.

Swearing Models and Classifications

The study of cursing and swearing linguistic functions is a relatively new field that officially started in 1967, with The Anatomy of Swearing by British American anthropologist Ashley Montagu. He analyzed the English swearing vernacular by recognizing two main categories: form and character (Montagu, 1967). The first category included expressing verbal aggression, cursing or invoking evil to befall the recipient, profanity and blasphemy (that which particularly focused on ridiculing religious objects), and obscenity/vulgarity (that which was crude) (Montagu, 1967; Osborne, n.d., p. 1). The character of swearing refers to the intention behind the expression, like abusive swearing, adjurative swearing (bringing the wrath of God on the soul, for instance: “go to Hell”), excretory swearing (using the f-form of a curse), expletive swearing (relying on swear words as sentence fillers), among others (Montagu, 1967; Osborne, n.d., p. 1).

Montagu (1967) emphasized the importance of understanding social context in the study of swearing; he relied on diachronic sociolinguistics to offer a comprehensive overview of swearing as a subtype of ritualized, elaborated language of the past, providing examples from antiquity to modernity. Montagu's (1967) book is a historical analysis of taboo words and phrases, which built a foundation for further studies of the cultural complexities of swearing as well as its connection with the realms of ritual. This sociological attitude prevailed among later authors, like Lars-Gunnar Andersson and Peter Trudgil who defined swearing as a genre that fulfilled three thematic conditions: taboo, things that should not be interpreted literally, and those that expressed violent emotions (Andersson and Trudgil, 1990, p. 53). Therefore, swearing linguistic formulas can be organized around themes such as sexuality, shameful bodily functions, certain groups, like family or relatives, and the realm of religion, sanctity, and spirituality. Despite the relatively clear verbal formulations, cultural and social contexts are vital for understanding and interpreting both swearing and its potential origin, role, or intention.

Figure 2: Ritual. (n.d.). Violet Gray.

Links Between Swearing and Magic

In the book Language and Magic: Studies in the Magical Function of Speech, Toshihiko Izutsu explored the intimate connection between language and magic (Toshihiko, 1956/2011, p. 8). In addition to formalized ritual, the author refers to Malinowski’s concept (Malinowski, 1925) of spontaneous magic, which creates a natural link between the worldly and spiritual realms. "With reference to these categories, Hughes (1998:4) notes that ‘swearing shows a curious convergence of the high and the low, the sacred and the profane” (Stapleton, et al., 2022). Spontaneous magic, as Malinowski describes, is a natural human response to overwhelming emotion that manifests in expressive words and gestures (Malinowski, 1925; Toshihiko, 1956/2011, p. 14). Considering these aspects, swearing also appears as a form of spontaneous magic: it is expressive and fueled by emotion, and follows determined linguistic forms while carrying symbolic meanings.

However, another magical category is pivotal for understanding the development of the swearing vernacular in a language, and that is cursing. Although the two terms can be interchangeable, swearing is a broader linguistic category while cursing is a magical practice that is also considered a sub-type of swearing. Curses were personal, private contracts between a person and a deity, and used for multiple purposes, often contradictory in nature (Parker, 2020): to protect, condemn, harm, or attract. For instance, the love magic curse intended against a rival was blood-curdling and maledictive for an understandable reason: the positioning of the rival as one’s natural enemy (Parker, 2020). However, similarly violent language could be found in curses whose intention was to attract a desired partner. In the case of the latter, the curse description should not necessarily be taken literally, but the expressive violence of the language was formulaic and possibly meaningful on a different level (Parker, 2020). Many technicalities of erotic spells draw heavily from the iconography of cursing, often involving violent actions such as tying or pinning a figurine. Research on the ancient Mediterranean world suggests that erotic magic in the region was rooted in curses and typically practiced by men, reflecting a gendered preference for swearing that exists both within and beyond magical contexts (Faraone, 1999). This preference is supported by behavioral studies indicating that men tend to swear more frequently than women, a trend often attributed to male intergroup aggression (Güvendir, 2015).

Figure 3: Voodoo doll Louvre. (n.d.). Wikimedia Commons.

The Theory of the Sacral Origin of Swearing

Montagu recognized cursing as one of the earliest documented forms of swearing (Montagu, 1973, p. 35). The Russian linguist and semiotician Boris Uspenski went even further proposing a theory of a sacral origin to swearing. He identified swearing at someone’s mother as equivalent to a prayer (Montagu, 1973, p. 35). When one needed to save oneself from, for instance, a forest spirit or another being associated with folk religion, one would either pray or swear at somebody’s mother (Uspenski, 1998; Užarević, 1999, p. 194; Đurin and Jovanović 2019, p. 4). This theory highlights the role of swearing in negotiations with the spiritual realm. Uspenski also described swear words as rooted in tabooism and archaism (Uspenski, 1998; Užarević, 1999 p. 194; Đurin and Jovanović, 2019, p. 4). His studies were based on ethnographic and historical sources which documented swear words as integral parts of diverse rituals like those of a marital or agricultural nature, wherein their anti-behaviour character aimed at banishing impure forces (Uspenski 1998; Đurin and Jovanović, 2019, p.4). 

The article “Experiment in Holism-Theory and Practice in Contemporary Anthropology, Joking the Cosmos into the Right Shape in North Asia” (2010) by anthropologists Morten Axel Pedersen and Rane Willerslev presented an intriguing study of animistic linguistic formulas, including jokes and threats, as well as awe and seduction, as means to establish a relationship with the spirit world. Their essay is featured in Experiments in Holism: Theory and Practice in Contemporary Anthropology, a series of works by numerous scholars focused on the critical reexamination of holism in anthropology and its potential in contemporary world studies. (Pedersen, Willerslev, 2010). Pedersen and Willerslev presented the concept of proportional holism and argued that joking with the spirits of the dead and other spiritual entities served to actualize them in ritual in everyday situations. Rude joking during Mongolian shamanic rituals kept the cosmological balance by simultaneously revealing both the invisible and visible reality (Pedersen, Willerslev, 2010, pp. 300-301). This intriguing interpretation suggests that rude linguistic expressions, particularly in animistic religions, play an important role in maintaining a balanced and egalitarian relationship with the spiritual realm (Pedersen, Willerslev, 2010, pp. 300-301). Unlike organized, especially Abrahamic, religions, animistic ones do not see the universe as a structured hierarchy with fixed roles for every individual within the system (Pedersen, Willerslev, 2010, pp. 300-301). This positions the human and the spirit world as different but in a way, equals, therefore shamans would become negotiators, often relying on linguistic formulas based on dichotomies and contradictions (Pedersen, Willerslev, 2010, pp. 300-301). Jokes or swearing in such a context would serve as symbols of intimacy and signify the possibility of unpredictable power dynamics between the mortal and the spiritual realm rather than acknowledging the spirit world as always superior and more powerful, which tends to be the attitude of many organized religions. 

Figure 4: Mongol Shaman. (n.d.). The Attic.

Among other interesting studies on cursing and swearing practices, the recent monograph Shamanic Dialogues with the Invisible Dark in Tuva, Siberia by social anthropologist Konstantinos Zorbas (2021) dealt with curse accusations in post-Soviet Tuva, a former USSR state situated in southern Siberia. He focused on an epidemic of accusations of curses which he interpreted as a “repercussion of socioeconomic frustrations and precariousness associated with the post-socialist transition” (Zorbas, 2021, p. 9), where curses were seen as the explanation for misfortunes and chaos. The study attested how in times of crisis, curses, swearing, and superstitions play a significant role in a community as an attempt to alleviate anxiety and fear of the unknown, as well as solidify the illusion of control. On that level, swearing and magic are closely linked since they fill the same hole in the fragile tissue of society.

Regional Case Study: The Serbo-Croatian Example

Swearing as rooted in magical and spiritual practices, particularly in relation to animistic religions, is an intriguing field of research. Since the Serbo-Croatian language is among the most prolific when it comes to creative and prevalent swearing vernacular, it provides an engaging case study example (Božić, 2018). The first person to cover the history of swearing in the ex-Yugoslav region was Fra Ignacije Gavran in 1962 (Padovan, 2018, p.15); he studied the phenomenon back to medieval times, starting with the existence of protective cursing on the oldest linguistic monuments, like Bašćanska ploča, a 12th-century-old Croatian stone writing through which the king Dmitar Zvonimir gifted land to a benedictine convent. As for the religious motifs in swearing formulas, he referred to the Renaissance author Marko Marulić, who mentioned that his contemporaries included God and the saints in their array of swearing models (Padovan, 2018, p. 16). Although Fra Gavran's study was both commendable and unique, his theological background constrained his approach within a moralizing framework.

Franko Padovan, who holds a degree in Croatian Language and Literature, noted in his thesis that the inhabitants of the region frequently resort to swearing as a matter of habit, upbringing, and frustration, within friendly and familial interactions, and use families, sexual parts, and religious objects or persons as particles of a swearing form. In his book Magic on the Contemporary Croatian Territory, the historian Deniver Vukelić described erotic cursing formulas that date back to the Roman era and, subsequently, the broader ancient Mediterranean area among the magical evidence on the territories that belong to contemporary Croatia, proving layered and multicultural magical and spiritual influence over the region (Vukelić, 2021). It is a well-known fact that religion remains more influential in the Balkans than in the Western world (Tanner, 2018), which is fascinating since religious motifs in Serbo-Croatian swearing vernacular are more than common. Many local linguists consider Serbo-Croatian, Italian, and Hungarian languages at the top of the European list when it comes to profane language use (Božić, 2018). The recognizable features of Serbo-Croatian swearing include prevalence to the level of almost normalization in many settings, personalization in the form of creative changes to the root swearing formula, and frequent religious subjects that are seemingly in opposition to the overwhelming religiosity of the population. Occasionally, local believers turn to public moral outcries not only against curse formulas that include sacred objects but also against any form of art or spirituality they deem foreign. For instance, there was an article that invited people to write in protest to the Archaeological Museum of Zadar city because of an exhibition about shamanism held in the church of Saint Donat which included cursing God as a part of a performance (Karlobag. eu, unknown author, 2024). 

Figure 5: Croatian bell ringers, traditional carnival protectors against evil. (n.d.). KuhaOna.

Serbian Swearing and Pagan Origins

Tatjana Đurin of the University of Novi Sad and Ivan Jovanović of the University of Niš have significantly contributed to the theme with their work “An Intangible but Very Loud Heritage: Swear Words in Serbian“ (2019). The authors described the genesis of swear words through a historical and comparative study of Serbian religion and folklore, relying on a hybrid methodological framework consisting of cognitive ethnolinguistics, linguo-culturology —a discipline that deals with the relations between language and culture— and pragmatics in order to explore the connection to the mythological and magical cultural layers while paying attention to swearing as actual speech acts (Đurin and Jovanović, 2019, p. 2). Their corpus consisted of obscene words and expressions taken from several Serbian dictionaries. They concluded that swearing among the Serbs is so common that it represents a unique linguistic and cultural practice (Đurin and Jovanović, pp. 1-4). 

An interesting pre-Christian Slavic element of swearing was discussed by linguists Marija Mandić and Ljubica Đurić, who argued that the origin of swear words can be found in the myth of the holy marriage between the god of the sky and the goddess of the earth, Perun and Mokoš (Mandić, Đurić 2015; Đurin and Jovanović, 2019). This claim was further complicated by the studies of the Croatian linguist Radoslav Katičić, whose trilogy based on comparative linguistics and the study of folk literature and poetry, reveals multiple pre-Christian mythological elements within Slavic folk poetry. Some of his findings suggest the possibility that Mokoš, Perun’s wife, and Veles, his opponent, might be the same deity (Katičić, 2011). The Slavic cosmos is supported by the eternal war between the earth/underground and the sky. However, this conflict does not prefigure the Christian dichotomy of good and evil; instead, it simply reflects the dance between the elemental opposites that constitute existence. If Katičić's hypothesis holds, this divine war might be interpreted as a marital struggle, metaphorically violent, akin to the nature of swearing. 

According to Yugoslav philologist, ethnologist, and classical scholar Veselin Čajkanović, many Serbian swear phrases target the female family members of the godfather and one's place of origin or ancestors. He interpreted this practice as a connection to the cult of the ancestors. Ancient Slavs believed their ancestors were a helpful force, thus the foul language targeted at them could block their positive influence. The godfather in the marriage ceremony represented a mediator between the living and the deceased ancestors who were still involved in their living familial affairs (Čajkanović 1973; Đurin and Jovanović, 2019, p. 8-10).

Figure 6: Slavic god Triglav (Three-heads), (n.d.). Wikipedia.

Pagan origins of the swearing formulas are also supported by phrases that include three or multiple gods like I f* your three gods or May the god of all gods f* you! Čajkanović identified this god as Dajbog, the Serbian national god and, among other things, the ruler of the dead (Čajkanović, 1973; Đurin and Jovanović, 2019, p. 10). The mention of the number three is common in Serbo-Croatian swear phrases. Apart from gods, it can refer to three mother's cunts. The number's magical relevance is equal for both Christian and pre-Christian spirituality (Đurin and Jovanović, 2019, p. 13). 

Thus, a question arises regarding the connection between excessive religious profanity in Serbo-Croatian and ancient magical and animistic traditions. As interesting as the suggestion might be, further studies would have to be attempted to provide any kind of a conclusive answer to this question. In light of the evidence presented, it is plausible to conclude that Serbo-Croatian swearing is influenced by ancient magical and animistic traditions that impacted the region and are also an expression of the constant economic crisis and unpredictability of the area.

Conclusion

Swearing is a near-universal trait of human linguistic expression, likely connected to the magical practice of cursing. In fact, it shares many of the same features as magical rituals, such as emotional release, creativity, and the use of symbolic language through set formulas. While often derogatorily understood, swearing can have multiple positive effects and interpretations, making it inherently paradoxical. Understanding this phenomenon requires careful attention to cultural and social contexts, as swearing is deeply intertwined with values, beliefs, and behavioral norms, as well as instances of rebellion and the sphere of morality. People use it not only to relieve stress or express symbolic violence but also to develop intimacy, show admiration, and cope with broader social issues and the anxieties they cause. Viewing swearing as a component of spirituality or religion—rather than its opposite—can provide a deeper understanding of both human spirituality and the complexities and layers of language.

Bibliography

Božić, I. (2018). Hrvati ne prestaju psovati iliti beštimati: Donosimo listu 20 najučestalijih psovki nacije. Srednja.hr. Retrieved September, 18, 2024, from https://www.srednja.hr/svastara/hrvati-ne-prestaju-psovati-iliti-bestimati-donosimo-listu-20-najucestalijih-psovki-nacije/

Đurin, T., & Jovanović, I. (2019, October 2). An intangible but very loud heritage: Swear words in Serbian.

ResearchGate.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336589682_AN_INTANGIBLE_BUT_VERY_LOUD_HERITAGE_SWEAR_WORDS_IN_SERBIAN

Faraone, A. C. (1999). Ancient Greek Love Magic [Interview]. Harvard University Press.https://fathom.lib.uchicago.edu/1/777777122299/

Güvendir, E. (2015, July). Why are males inclined to use strong swear words more than females? An evolutionary explanation based on male intergroup aggressiveness. Language Sciences, 133-139. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0388000115000194

Jing-Schmidt, Z. ( 2019 ). Cursing, Taboo, and Euphemism. In Z. Jing-Schmidt (Ed.), The Routledge Handbook of Chinese applied linguistics (pp. 391-406). Routledge.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318042045_Cursing_Taboo_and_Euphemism

Katičić, R. (2011). Gazdarica na vratima. Ibis Grafika. 

Osborne, D. (n.d.). Maledictive Language: Cursing and Swearing. Ryerson University. Retrieved September 18, 2024, from https://www.academia.edu/38627834/Maledictive_Language_Cursing_and_Swearing

Padovan, F. (2018). Komunikacijska obilježja psovke u hrvatskome jeziku. [Master's thesis. The repository of the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences]. Repozitorij.ffzg.unizg.hr. https://repozitorij.ffzg.unizg.hr/islandora/object/ffzg%3A363/datastream/PDF/view

Parker, A. (2020). Ancient spells and charms for the hapless in love. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/ancient-spells-and-charms-for-the-hapless-in-love-130567

Stapleton, K., Beers Fägersten, K, Stephens, R., Loveday, K. (2022, September 20). The power of swearing: What we know and what we don’t. Lingua, 277, 103406. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002438412200170X

Stevens, K. (2024). Why science says swearing is good for your mental health. ProMind Psychology. Retrieved October 06, 2024. https://promindpsychology.com.au/why-science-says-swearing-is-good-for-your-mental-health/

Tanner, M. (2018). Religion Remains Powerful in Balkans, Survey Shows. Balkan Insight. Retrieved September 18, 2024, from https://balkaninsight.com/2018/01/15/religion-remains-powerful-in-balkans-survey-shows-01-15-2018/ 

Toshihiko, I. ( 2011). Language and Magic. Studies in the Magical Function of Speech. Keio University Press.

Unknown author. (n.d.). Psovanje Boga s pozornice u Karlobagu i šamanski rituali u crkvi Sv.Donata simboli su iste ideologije zlog. Karlobag. eu. Retrieved September, 18, 2024, from https://karlobag.eu/religija/psovanje-boga-s-pozornice-u-karlobagu-i-samanski-rituali-u-crkvi-sv-donata-simboli-su-iste-ideologije-zlog--karlobageu-n7qtc

Pedersen, M.A. and Willerslev, R. (2010). Proportional Holism: Joking the Cosmos into the Right Shape in North Asia. n T. Otto, & N. Bubandt (Eds.), Experiments in Holism: Theory and Practice in Contemporary Anthropology (pp. 262-278). Wiley-Blackwell. https://www.academia.edu/33944408/Pedersen_and_Willerslev_2010_Proportional_Holism_Joking_the_Cosmos_Into_the_Right_Shape_in_North_Asia

Zorbas, K. (2021). Shamanic Dialogues with the Invisible Dark in Tuva, Siberia. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

Visual sources: