Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Mediation Translation
Foreword
In an increasingly globalized world, the ability to effectively mediate between cultures through translation and interpreting is more critical than ever. The objective of this research series is to facilitate the integration of theoretical frameworks with practical applications in cultural mediation. Additionally, it seeks to enhance comprehension of the function of cultural mediation in translation and interpreting, offering both theoretical insights and practical strategies to facilitate intercultural communication in global contexts.
This series will examine the multifaceted roles of cultural mediators, dissecting how they can overcome intercultural challenges and enhance communication in multilingual contexts. By delving into both the theoretical underpinnings and real-world applications, the series will provide readers, including students, practicing professionals, and scholars, with the essential tools and knowledge to understand and implement effective cultural mediation strategies. A mixed-method approach will be employed, with theoretical discussions accompanied by case studies drawn from real-world translation scenarios. This will ensure that each subtopic is supported by examples from contemporary practice, thereby illustrating the application of theories in tangible settings. Furthermore, this series will add to the existing body of knowledge by synthesizing current theories and practices in cultural mediation while offering new insights into its application in professional translation and interpreting contexts. The goal is not only to inform but also to inspire a deeper appreciation of the intricacies involved in translation and interpreting, highlighting the vital role of cultural mediation in fostering global understanding and cooperation. Various studies related to bilingualism in cultural mediation will complement the content of this series, investigating its impact on the process, its necessity, and the role of culture in translation. It is the combination of theoretical analysis and case studies, augmented by illustrative examples, that renders this series distinctive.
The series is divided into the following chapters:
Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Bilingualism in Intercultural Mediation
Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Mediation Translation
Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Translation Strategies for Mediation
Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Skopos Theory in Translation
Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Interpreters vs Cultural Mediators
Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Cultural Mediation in Crisis Translation
Cultural Mediation in Translation Series:
Mediation Translation
Is mediation a way of translating and interpreting or are translation and interpretation ways of mediating? This is the question from which the main discussion that makes up this article arises from. The role of the translator or interpreter plays indeed a massive role in the development of this discussion and the vision of this role influences which discipline governs which.
Translators and interpreters serve as language facilitators, connecting individuals who communicate in diverse languages. They translate not just words but also cultural references, feelings, and concepts, promoting understanding across linguistic and cultural gaps. In the end, both careers are essential in an ever-globalizing world, where successful communication among people from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds is crucial in business, diplomacy, law, healthcare, and many other fields.
The functions of the T&I as an inter-linguistic mediator is the most important aspect of this chapter, as well as the definition of language mediation and its types. The difference between mediation and translation (Montcada, 2020) is highlighted, and the main uses of each are shown through real-case scenarios. According to Dendrinos (2006), T&I professionals face the following challenges: sociocultural aspects, language register, level of knowledge on a subject, and textual obstacles. At the same time, Dendrinos explains that a competent mediator is a social actor who “actively develops a task” in the communication process, a facilitator, a negotiator, and an arbitrator. This is the role that shapes the intercultural interactions. Some practical implications are mediating a text, concepts, communication, specific information, explaining data, processing a text, translating, note-taking, expressing a personal response, analysis and criticism of creative texts, collaborating in a group, leading group work, facilitating pluricultural spaces, acting as an intermediary in informal situations and facilitating communication critical situations." (Montcada, 2020). Finally, this article shows the practical implications that involve any aspects of bilingualism and conveys a position regarding the question presented at the beginning of this article: mediation through translation or translation through mediation? In an interlingual context, is it more advisable to have a bilingual mediator or are the services of a professional translator or interpreter necessary?
Differences between Mediation and Translation
As mentioned in the previous article of this Series, language mediation “is the action of those who intervene between two or more people to solve a conflict or reach an agreement. In this case, our conflict isn’t a neighborly argument or failure to fulfill a commercial agreement, but a linguistic conflict between two or more people who are unable to communicate directly for whichever reason" (Montcada, 2020). There are two types of language mediation: intra-linguistic mediation and inter-linguistic mediation. The first one happens within the same language and the second one is carried out between two different languages. Language mediation is a social practice that helps to solve or avoid communication conflicts through language.
On one hand, the mediator is a social agent who resolves misunderstandings, translates, and selects information to transfer to the recipient. A mediator also interprets, explains data, and manages the interaction between speakers. On the other hand, translation is a fundamental element in the process of social integration that preserves linguistic-cultural identities (Hernández, 1997). This activity also involves sensations and affections, as Lesch describes: “Community translation equips the community with the necessary information and other means to develop skills for themselves. It is an attempt to balance the power relationship between the sender and the receiver by prioritizing the needs of the community. Effective, empowering communication between the author and the reader via the translated text implies that the translator needs to be on the side of the powerless, that is the reader” (1999, p. 93). The task of the community translator is not only to make information available in another language but to make it available to marginalized communities (Cluver, 1992, p. 36).
Both concepts might seem similar but the main difference, according to Costa and Cavalli (2015) and Montcada (2020), is that "mediation allows the access to knowledge, reduces or minimizes conflicts and affective blockades and constructs bridges between participants, towards what is new to the other". Depending on the context, professional translation and interpretation can be part of the mediation process and vice versa. The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR), suggests that oral mediation is construed to be synonymous with simultaneous interpretation at conferences and meetings, consecutive interpretation in speeches and guided tours, and informal interpretation in social and daily life situations (p. 88). At the same time, written mediation is meant to be synonymous with the exact translation of legal and scientific texts, literary translation, and paraphrasing.
However, as previously discussed, there seem to be several debates on this topic. Nur Fitria states that mediation is different from professional translation, and she views it as “an everyday social practice which involves meaning-making agents in acts of communication that require negotiation of meaning and relaying of information across the same or different languages” (2024, p. 8). Mediation is an inter-linguistic activity during which there is a relaying of information from one language to another, information that is important for the context of the situation. Whereas translators and interpreters do not show an opinion and remain true to the original text, mediators participate in the communicative event and even become interlocutors who interpret and make choices. They choose the information that needs to be transferred or that is relevant to the topic, not all of the content of the inter or intra-cultural communication might be reported.
Mediation is thus crucial for anyone who is unfamiliar with a country, its language, and its culture. Although verbal communication is the most effective, commonly employed, and adaptable method of conveying messages, non-verbal components like gestures, employing signs, and creating maps can also serve as valuable methods of mediating information and comprehension in specific contexts. There are three concrete types of mediators. In the first place, natural facilitators can act as mediators. For instance bilingual kids, caregivers, educators, or anyone who can communicate in more than one language. In the second place, expert mediators. That is to say, trained and specialized multilingual adults who have taken academic courses and gained profound knowledge of the language along with special skills in consciously mastering the languages and the various cultures associated with them. Lastly, mediation can be self-directed by individuals who, due to school services, participate in formal language classes or obtain informal language assistance and can pursue linguistic and cultural mediation for themselves when necessary.
T&I as an Inter-linguistic Mediator
Translators and Interpreters handle cultural differences, including traditions and behavioral acts, and deal with different conceptions of the world. Conflicts can arise from those differences and even be intensified when the participants do not share the same language. Here is where an inter-linguistic mediator is needed, whose role is to facilitate communication, understanding, and action between people whose language and/or culture is different (Taft, 1981). An inter-linguistic mediator “identifies the intentions and perceptions of one group for the other in order to establish a balanced communication between them" (Valero, 2018). Usually, this role is played by volunteers, and they use the method of “conversation with translation”, according to Müller (1989), which is not a translation act. According to Valero (2018), the main difference between a conversation and a translation is that in a conversation one of the speakers acts as a mediator and a translator and translation becomes a “conversational modality”. However, an inter-linguistic mediator acts actively in a conversation, besides paying attention to the intercultural communication itself. For instance, if silence happens, the inter-linguistic mediator should be able to obviate it, stop it, or even reformulate it depending on the cultural context and the language used. A translator and interpreter has the expertise to make those kinds of decisions and can identify any racial or cultural differences to avoid critical situations and misconceptions, including sociopolitical and ideological aspects. Each part of intercultural communication has diverse attitudes that the intercultural mediator should pay attention to avoid critical incidents. Furthermore, it is important to consider the cultural background. If the inter-linguistic mediator is bicultural, and consequently also bilingual, there are two solid cultural backgrounds to work on. However, the most important point is to be able to observe and analyze the involved cultural systems. Considering all these aspects, translation is a process of inter-linguistic mediation and the translator or interpreter is the agent that reproduces the message in a different language. Translation in public services, for example, consists in communicating specific information to a specific public, usually minority groups (Roberts, 1997). This type of translation can be defined as the adaptation of a text to the necessities of a minority that cohabits in a country with a dominant majority (Valero, 2018).
The T&I must master specific abilities and have a certain educational background besides language knowledge. They need specific intercultural skills which will be described in the next section. To summarize, the T&I “serves as a bridge between distance communities, as a mediator who has to use a variety of strategies” (Valero, 2018). Nevertheless, the level of intervention needs to be defined, since mediators might always show neutrality and observe the situation from a distance. They must be professional, no matter if they belong to the minority culture or the dominant one. Therefore, in Southern countries such as Spain, Italy, and Greece translators are trained as inter-linguistic mediators and they also develop cultural, and anthropological abilities and intercultural competences besides linguistic skills. However, in other European countries, there is still some controversy on the role of mediators and whether they need to be professional translators or not. Is mediation a form of translation? Although research regarding the limits and the functions of community interpreters and public services translators are still ongoing, “there are some agreements on the active participation of the interpreter and the importance of cultural aspects in order to transmit not only what is said but also what is meant” (García, 2009). There are still debates on whether mediation is merely a linguistic and cultural practice, or if interpreters should act as real mediators in an intercultural situation where the content and the consequences of the conversation are key in the interaction. The influence of the metaphor of the community interpreter as a mediator has helped us to see which specific activities reflect the perception of the mediator. According to Rumelhart, “the metaphor of translators, in this case interpreters, as mediators, has been so fruitful and so interiorized by scholars, practitioners and trainers, that we can no longer treat it as a metaphor, but as an acquired literal meaning inherent to what translation or interpreting is” (1979, p. 90).
T&I Professional Challenges
Translators and interpreters must have a deep understanding of the source language and target language and the ability to transfer meaning from one language to another. They must also have writing skills, understand the social and cultural context behind the interaction, and pay attention to the audience of the message (Neubert & Shreve, 1992). Dhinar (2022) explains that a translator does not only translate words and sentences, they need to facilitate the reading and make it sound natural in the target language, while maintaining the meaning. Bramono (2012) states that translators normally have bilingual skills, although they are not enough to obtain a high-quality translation.
Translating does not involve only mechanical processes: paying attention to the context is key in order to obtain a good translation since the same concept can be very different depending on the language. Grammar and spelling are also relevant during the process of translating or interpreting, including spelling and capitalization. All in all, a translator must own translating ability. That means being able to master different languages, facilitate the knowledge of intercultural skills, and, at the same time, make the translating process much easier. Translation competences are part of the skills that a translator needs (Eser, 2015). Reading comprehension skills, writing abilities, specialization in certain fields, cultural understanding, and editing competences are also crucial to avoid any challenges during the translation process.
A specialist who helps two or more people who speak different languages to communicate is known as an interpreter (oral translator). To translate speech into the target language in real time, interpreters frequently collaborate with native speakers while working orally. Additionally, in this situation, interpreters ought to view nonverbal communication as a translation process that incorporates nonverbal explanations. The interpreter uses visuals, hand gestures, and facial expressions to explain things (Aryanto, 2015). Hence, strong communication skills, fast comprehension, and the ability to digest sentences quickly are all necessary for interpreters. Interpreting is the process of verbally translating from one language into another, according to Setyaji et al. (2023). This work differs slightly from the translation. Whereas interpreting is done orally by an interpreter, translation is done by a translator based on a text and is done in writing. According to Setyaji et al. (2023), being an interpreter demands a high level of accuracy and quickness. Interpreters must be highly skilled and focused to provide real-time interpretation. They have to make an oral translation as soon as they hear the first sentence, and then they have to listen to the next sentence and make an accurate oral translation. Therefore, it should come as no surprise that this work is regarded as more intricate and challenging than translating. Not all people who are multilingual can perform simultaneous interpreting professionally due to the intricacy of the job. In addition to language proficiency, becoming a professional interpreter requires other abilities that are more complex. According to Korompot et al. (2020), interpreters should be able to verbally translate from the source language to the target language with ease. In this situation, an interpreter with experience in spoken translation is needed.
An interpreter must be exceptionally proficient in language in several areas, including both the source and destination languages. Both internal and external influences impact the development of this capability. Work experience, motivation, and language skills are examples of intrinsic elements. Training, job opportunities, and educational experiences are examples of extrinsic variables. A good short-term memory and effective listening skills are essential for finishing the interpreting process. Another essential skill for an interpreter is to have an understanding of cultural symbols. Cultural or habitual differences are frequently barriers that users of official interpreter services can hardly influence. Consequently, an interpreter is not just proficient in a foreign language but also in the cultural signals present in the dialogue. Due to the oral nature of interpreting, an interpreter needs to think swiftly and accurately about how to convey what is being communicated, translate the foreign language into the client's language, and express the client's intentions to the other speaker. All in all, interpreters require skills such as proficiency in foreign languages, quick thinking, comprehension of varied diction, rapid learning, effective communication skills, adaptability, strong problem-solving abilities, and attentive listening. Typically, an interpreter is required to act as a mediator for two parties who speak different languages.
At first glance, as Liddicoat (2016) proved, the job of translation involves transforming a text composed in one language into another, allowing a new audience to access content they might not otherwise reach. This indicates that a translator plays a role in conveying meanings that are formulated in one language to an audience that lacks both language and culture. Therefore, translation cannot merely involve reproducing the meanings of a text in a different language; instead, after interpreting the text and its purpose, the translator needs to convey meanings to new audiences. Via the translator's voice, various linguistic and cultural contexts are interconnected, allowing meanings to be conveyed across linguistic and cultural divides. Acting as a conduit for communication across linguistic and cultural divides, the translator occupies a mediating role between the author and the audience, as well as between the cultures. This perspective of the translator as a mediator is not at all new. For instance, Kade (1968) employed the concept of linguistic mediation to frame the domain of translation and interpreting studies. Consequently, translation is perceived as a type of mediational effort that places the translator between two parties conversing in different languages, facilitating communication where a common language does not exist. The translator, acting as a linguistic mediator, can be interpreted in several ways. At a surface level, the mediator appears to be merely the conduit for communication; in essence, mediation is just a term that outlines the function of the translator, acting as a facilitator of intercultural dialogue, with mediation perceived as a deliberate, intentional involvement in the communication process. From this perspective, the concept of mediation defines translation as a multifaceted interaction with meanings between different languages and cultures.
Both oral and written translation presents tough challenges in the 21st century, with interpretation requiring more intricate and demanding language competencies. Translators and interpreters need to adjust to different professional environments and have a range of skills to handle the challenges of globalization. Communication is essential for intercultural exchanges, and translators need to grasp cultural insights to engage in negotiations. Both technical and non-technical elements affect the ongoing nature of oral translation activities, with non-physical aspects encompassing the translator's skills and the translation procedure.
Conclusion: Bilingual Mediator or Translator/Interpreter?
Translators and interpreters are two different professionals with unique roles and abilities. Translators operate within a particular context, concentrating on language type, context, and comprehension of the target language. They employ translation methods to examine and categorize word counterparts in translated documents, guaranteeing clear, exact, and efficient communication. Both necessitate a profound comprehension of language and culture, specialized expertise, and effective communication. Translation tasks require consideration of multiple elements, including context, grammatical guidelines, spelling, writing standards, idiomatic expressions, and punctuation. Interpreters enable communication among individuals who converse in distinct languages, frequently working orally and concurrently with native speakers. They should take into account non-verbal signals such as facial expressions, gestures, and visuals to guarantee that the message from the source is comprehended. Translators and interpreters need to possess outstanding language abilities, quick decision-making skills, efficient information processing, and extensive knowledge of their fields. In general terms, to mediate refers to serving as a middle party in a dispute between individuals to aid in achieving consensus. Language mediation is utilized as a potential approach to address issues related to migrants' integration into institutional services in multilingual and multicultural communities. Language mediation can facilitate transformation in other communication systems, encouraging dialogue across diverse perspectives. Challenges in communication can stem from various factors, including differences in language or terminology, insufficient command of the other language or register, cognitive gaps, meaning a lack of familiarity with particular concepts or processes, absence of pertinent information, cultural variations, and disabilities.
The internet has transformed mediation, facilitating quicker and simpler online dispute resolution for parties. However, when participants communicate in different languages, the process may become more complicated. Employing an effective bilingual mediator can significantly alter the situation. Fierro (2024) determines several important advantages of employing a mediator fluent in the languages of the mediation participants. First of all communication and comprehension will be enhanced. Some language details can be overlooked in translation, potentially resulting in misinterpretations. A bilingual mediator can comprehend the nuances of both languages, ensuring that every party feels acknowledged and comprehended. This promotes trust and creates a more effective mediation setting. Furthermore, there is also a quicker advancement. By removing the necessity for ongoing translation, the mediation can proceed more effectively. The mediator can guide conversations, remain impartial, and assist parties in reaching an agreement without the delays involved in interpretation. In addition, mediators concentrate on solutions and not language. An adept bilingual mediator can prioritize the essential elements of the conflict instead of getting trapped in translating each phrase. This enables a more efficient sharing of thoughts and a quicker route to finding a solution. The final advantage is that the expenses are lower and the process is shorter, since employing an interpreter for the complete mediation can be costly and lengthens the procedure. Fierro (2024) declares that having a bilingual mediator greatly decreases the necessity for an interpreter and although an interpreter might still be required in certain situations, a bilingual mediator can greatly lessen the necessity for one. In contrast to conventional face-to-face mediation, which emphasizes simultaneous gatherings of all parties, the emerging trend in online mediation favors shorter, individual meetings with each side. Consequently, the extended joint meetings that frequently need interpreters are becoming rarer. "A bilingual mediator can simplify the mediation process, reduce expenses, and assist parties in achieving an equitable resolution. By enabling clearer communication and comprehension, bilingual mediators enhance a more efficient and effective experience in resolving disputes" (Fierro, 2024).
In conclusion, and after all the studies and examples mentioned above, it may not always work in all contexts and a mediator may act instead of a translator or interpreter. It depends on the languages spoken, the specific skills and training of the mediator or translator, the cultural background, the previous experience, and, above all, the context of the communication, whether it is oral or written, face-to-face or online, and whether it is inter- or intra-cultural. It also depends on whether the mediator is bilingual in the two languages involved in the communication or even multilingual with more languages and cultures that may influence the context of the mediation. In many cases, a bilingual mediator may have all the skills necessary to mediate in an online context, whether written or spoken, inter- or intra-lingual mediation. In this series of articles, we focus on intercultural and inter-linguistic oral mediation in a face-to-face context more geared towards public services as previously stated. As we saw in the first article of this series, bilingualism can be a necessary intercultural competence in a mediation process to avoid conflicts and misunderstandings that hinder communication between two different cultures and languages. However, in face-to-face situations where there is a broader and more specialized cultural context, such as in the legal field for example, an interpreter will be able to bring more expertise and specificity to the context. To classify the types of mediation one by one according to each context that exists and the appropriate professional that is needed in each case, we would need much more research and real case studies, although it is a very interesting field to investigate more specifically. For this reason, this series, in which the advantages of bilingualism in intercultural contexts have been specified and classified as a necessary skill and one of the intercultural skills necessary in a mediation context, is focused on the two variants mentioned previously. The two options are the use of bilingual mediators in inter-cultural, oral and especially online contexts and the use of interpreters in more specialized face-to-face public services in broader multicultural contexts or with a great imbalance between the minority language and the dominant language. However, it is a very ambiguous discussion that depends on many nuances and details that cannot be considered in the scope of this series of articles and that could be further developed in further studies.
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Visual Sources
Figure 1. Pexels. Hypothetic Mediation Situation (2024). https://www.pexels.com/es
Figure 2. Pexels. Representation of Mediator/Translator/Interpreter Position (2024). https://www.pexels.com/es
Figure 3. Pexels. Idea of Translation/Interpreter Preparation and Education. (2024). https://www.pexels.com/es
Figure 4. Pexels. Translation and Interpreting Knowledge represented in a book. (2024). https://www.pexels.com/es
Figure 5. Pexels. Representation of Globalization "One World". (2024). https://www.pexels.com/es
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