Challenging Colonial Narratives: History, Identity, and Mixed-Blood Struggles in John Joseph Mathews' Sundown

Sundown (1934) by John Joseph Mathews is a fascinating work belonging to the Native American Literature which manages to intertwine personal and historical narratives to explore the complex identity struggles of Native Americans in the early 20th century.

The novel, set against significant socio-political upheavals following World War I, portrays the internal and external conflicts faced by the protagonist, Challenge, a mixed-blood Osage Indian (Matthews, 1934). Mathews (1934) utilizes his character’s journey to address broader themes of cultural dislocation, the effects of colonialism, and the economic exploitation of Native Americans. Simultaneously, Sundown (1934) engages in a conversation with mainstream historical accounts, complicating the often one-sided narrative of American progress. Blending historical context with personal experience, Mathews (1934) presents a nuanced examination of the tensions between tradition and modernity, belonging and alienation, that continue to shape Native American life. This article will explore how Matthews (1934) employs historical context and personal narrative to challenge dominant historical discourses, particularly regarding Native American identity and cultural survival.

Figure 1: Dance of Double Woman, 1971, Oscar Howe

The Interplay of History and Narrative

In literary writing, there is a tendency to present historical accounts through a personal lens (Mariani, 1997). Unlike historians, constrained to adhere to verifiable facts, literary authors are not bound by the same requirements of evidential accuracy. This distinction has been the subject of considerable debate as even historians, in their attempts to provide cohesive narratives, must occasionally rely on imagination to fill the gaps left by incomplete historical records. In this sense, both history and fiction involve storytelling, with history being the arrangement of facts into a coherent sequence of events much like the structure of a novel. Given the inherent errors and biases in human interpretation, no historical account is entirely free of inaccuracies.

In literature, narrative plays a critical role in shaping our understanding of the human condition. It is key not to diminish the value of narratives in favour of purely factual accounts, as they provide unique insights into the complexities of human experience. Therefore it is important to recognise the power of narrative. The American Indian novels, including John Joseph Mathews' Sundown (1934), often engage in dialogue with history, largely because its audience may be unfamiliar with the historical context of American Indian experiences (Mariani, 1997).

It is vital to have an understanding of this background in order to fully comprehend the situations in which the characters are placed. As no text emerges in isolation, the historical conditions informing the novel are integral to its interpretation. While mainstream history tends to emphasise widely recognized events, it is also necessary to understand how these broader historical moments impacted specific groups, such as American Indians, to fully appreciate the significance of these works. The socio-political landscape of the decades following World War I and World War II provides an important context for novels such as Sundown (1934). During this period, many nations were grappling with economic depression, widespread unemployment, and tumultuous international scene marked by events such as the rise of Hitler and the spread of Nazism, or the ongoing Spanish Civil War (Britannica, 2019). These conditions contribute to the complex realities faced by the novel’s characters and inform their exploration of identity and belonging in a rapidly changing world.

The genre of these novels predominantly focuses on the struggles that feature male protagonists. The focus is largely on the struggles of these characters as they navigate a world in transition, dealing with the pressures of new societal models imposed by colonialism (Mariani, 1997). These stories therefore prioritise themes regarding masculinity and its expressions; particularly how young men confront the challenges of an evolving world that offers new, often alienating, models of identity (Mariani, 1997). This prompts the broader question of the relationship between masculinity and femininity in these narratives, and how the changing roles of men complicate the portrayal of young male characters attempting to establish their identity (Snyder, 2008).

Mixed Blood-Full Blood (*1) Connotations

In Sundown (1934), the distinction between mixed blood and full blood is a central theme (Hunter, 1982). A full-blood Indian is defined as having Indian ancestry on both sides, with both parents being fully Indian (Hunter, 1982). In general, there was minimal concern for tribal affiliations, and parents could belong to different tribes. By the time of Matthews' writing, a significant part of the population, including the author himself, had an Indian mother and a white or mixed-race father (Matthews, 1934). The issue of mixed blood emerged as a result of the increasing contact between Indigenous people and Europeans. It predominantly involved white men and Indian women, although there were also instances of Indian men marrying white women (Mariani, 1997).

Figure 2: United States Department of the Interior advertisement offering 'Indian Land for Sale'

In Sundown (Matthews, 1934), however, the debate concerning the full-blood and mixed-blood heritage is more intricate and goes beyond the bureaucracy and land acquisition by the government. Challenge experiences an inner turmoil related to his sense of belonging, torn between one ethnic group and another. This challenging issue shapes his interactions with the external world, where, despite his efforts to assimilate, he is unable to truly identify with or belong to it. Despite his outward appearance of integration, he experiences a sense of rejection from both sides (Mariani, 1997). Even among Native Americans, he senses a lack of full acceptance and struggles to integrate into a community that, in his view, is not adapting to the contemporary rhythms imposed by society beyond the reservation. It is notable that Challenge is not the only character in the novel who experiences such inner turmoil. Several characters are forced to confront the challenges of the contemporary world, yet their emotional and social responses differ. On the one hand, characters such as Challenge’s father, appears to be open to progress; on the other, figures like Running Eagle and Sun-on-His-Wings who remain firmly rooted in their traditions (Mariani, 1997). For Challenge, being of mixed blood makes the process of decision-making and identity formation far more painful and distressing, as he feels a deep sense of not belonging and an inability to fully assimilate into either community.

*1: The terms "mixed blood" and "full blood" are used without any intent to offend or denigrate. They are taken directly from the original vocabulary of the novel, which was written in the early 20th century and does not reflect contemporary societal norms or the current usage of these terms.

An Analysis of Sundown (Matthews, 1934)

The novel Sundown by John Joseph Mathews (1934) unfolds gradually, beginning with the birth of the protagonist, who is named Challenge. This name carries deep allegorical significance. When Challenge is born, his father, a half-Indian man, declares that his son must serve as a challenge to the dishonour of their family. The name, therefore, can be interpreted as a form of vindication, symbolizing revenge for the loss or erasure of the family’s Indian roots. The father, however, is a complex figure who often critiques full-blooded Indians for being too entrenched in the past and bound by tradition.

Challenge’s name can also be read ironically. As a biracial Indian, Challenge embodies both Indigenous and white cultures, with the tension between these two worlds shaping his identity (Hunter, 1982). This complex character is raised with a profound sense of his own tribal history, yet as he matures, he becomes more conscious of the pressure to assimilate into a white society. His father, a prominent figure within the tribe, encourages him to adopt aspects of white culture, sending him to a boarding school and the University of Oklahoma. However, Challenge finds himself alienated in both worlds, feeling neither fully Osage nor fully accepted by white society.

This sense of purposelessness is deeply tied to the history of the Osage tribe, to which Challenge belongs. Originally from Kansas, the Osage were forcibly relocated to Indian Territory, where they purchased land in Oklahoma. Challenge returns to this territory, which holds a significant historical and economic context. In the early 20th century, the Osage discovered oil beneath their land, just as the automobile industry and modern machinery were rapidly expanding. Oil became a critical resource, and as a result, the Osage suddenly found themselves among the wealthiest people in the world, receiving enormous sums of money from the oil companies (Britannica, 2024). However, this newfound wealth brought significant troubles. A considerable number of Osage people experienced a radical transformation in their socioeconomic status, moving from extreme poverty to extreme wealth in a relatively short period of time. This resulted in the reservation becoming a focal point for criminal activities, attracting individuals with criminal intent who sought to exploit the Osage for financial gain and to advance their own agendas. As Challenge matures, he becomes increasingly disillusioned with the materialism and superficiality of the new wealth that has come to the Osage people through oil revenues. The sudden influx of money has brought both benefits and problems to the tribe. On the one hand, it provides material comfort, but on the other, it leads to corruption, exploitation by outsiders, and a loss of traditional values.

Figure 3: A postcard shows a group of women and children of the Osage Nation in Pawhuska, Okla., around 1918-1922.

This era saw many Osage people murdered for their oil rights. It was one of the first cases taken up by the newly formed FBI, underscoring its national importance to the U.S. government and the federation of states. The crimes committed against the Osage were taken seriously at the federal level, but following the Great Depression, the Osage were reduced to a regular American Indian tribe with their economic status drastically diminishing (Mariani, 1997). Challenge’s journey is marked by an increasing sense of alienation as he searches for meaning in a world where traditional values are in the process of being eroded. He returns home to Osage territory but finds it transformed by wealth and the influence of white society. He feels distant from his family and tribe, unable to find his place in this new reality. Challenge eventually attends the University of Oklahoma and when World War I begins, decides to join the U.S. Army Air Service as a pilot. After a brief training, he excels and becomes a night flying instructor. Regardless of his successes, his disillusionment and detachment continue to grow delving him into a state of complete apathy amid growing chaos, with more suicides and murders occurring, leading Challenge to withdraw further into nature and alcohol.

This historical context is crucial to the novel, as it informs the broader social and cultural environment in which Challenge exists. However, the novel explores a different narrative: Challenge’s personal struggles have little to do with the Osage’s specific history of oil wealth and loss. Instead, Sundown focuses on the existential challenges of a young mixed-blood American Indian, torn between his heritage and the pressures of assimilation into white society. His sense of alienation, lack of purpose, and inability to fully integrate into either world reflect the larger battle faced by Native Americans during this period of profound social and economic change.

Overarching Theme of Identity

The experience of being mixed-blood, particularly for Native Americans, presents complex issues related to identity and belonging. In Sundown (Matthews, 1934), this is not merely a matter of choosing between two cultures; it requires the protagonist's navigation of different ways of being, each with distinct values, customs, and expectations (Matthews, 1934). For Challenge, being an American Indian in America carries a deep social stigma, it does not revolve only around resolving his own internal conflicts but also includes managing how others perceive him (Matthews, 1934). Throughout the novel, he is constantly negotiating the expectations and judgments placed upon him by society, especially by white Americans (Matthews, 1934; Mariani, 1997).

This internal conflict mirrors the broader dynamics of race in the United States. For example, similar to the struggles of African Americans, Challenge is acutely aware of how others perceive him and how their expectations influence his behaviour (Matthews, 1934). In the same way that Black Americans often anticipate and respond to the assumptions of white people, Challenge feels the weight of these preconceived notions and tries to conform, though he knows he will never fully be accepted by white society. This sense of alienation is central to his experience during his childhood and university years, as he attempts to navigate a world in which he will never fully belong. His efforts to assimilate are met with the painful realization that no matter how much he tries, he will always be seen as different, as "Other" (Matthews, 1934).

Figure 4: Emphaty by Agnes Toth

This negotiation of identity — the balancing act between self-perception and external perception — is a key theme in Sundown (1934). Challenge's multiethnic heritage forces him into a position of constant self-reflection, caught between the expectations of both white society and his own Native roots (Hunter, 1982). His journey reflects a broader narrative about the pressures and contradictions faced by individuals who straddle two cultures, however, Challenge's identity issues are not only steamed from his cultural and ethnic heritage but it also deeply influenced by the gender roles established in his life (Matthews, 1934).

In Sundown (1934), as in many Native American communities during the period of colonial subjugation, the emasculation of Native men is a central theme, particularly in the context of shifting gender roles. When American Indian tribes were subjected to colonial rule, men, who had traditionally held public roles as hunters, warriors, and leaders, found themselves displaced and disempowered (Snyder, 2008). In contrast, Native women, who had primarily managed domestic responsibilities such as raising families and maintaining the home, appeared less affected in the public sphere. This continuity in women’s roles may suggest that they retained some stability, while men were left without their traditional outlets for masculinity.

Challenge’s struggle with his identity, exacerbated by shifting gender roles, deeply affects his relationships with women; he exhibits a clear ambivalence toward women and their bodies, possibly rooted in childhood trauma (Matthews, 1934). For instance, although he holds an idealised view of certain women, maintaining an emotional distance from them, he openly despises those who do not meet his standards of beauty (Matthews, 1934). This suggests that Challenge may be projecting his own insecurities and frustrations onto the women in his life, using them as outlets for his internal conflict.

Educated in white schools, Challenge finds himself torn between the traditional values of the Osage and the pressures to conform to a white model of masculinity, which feels alien to him (Matthews, 1934). This tension further complicates his understanding of gender and relationships, as he navigates a world in which his own identity remains fragmented and unresolved (Matthews, 1934). His ambivalence toward women can be seen as a reflection of his broader struggle to reconcile the expectations placed on him by both his Osage heritage and the dominant white society (Matthews, 1934).

Figure 5: Lissie Woodward & son Oliver Cabinet photograph W . E. Irwin, Chickasha, IT, circa 1895-2002, p.188

For Native men like Challenge, the shift in time and social structure left them stranded. They had money but no purpose, and freedom but no clear path forward. Without the traditional markers of masculinity — public roles, physical labour, and a sense of duty — they resorted to destructive behaviours, such as drinking, to fill the void (Matthews, 1934). This is also a reflection of the broader societal changes in the 1930s, where men were expected to be the breadwinners and hold public identities, while women, though beginning to gain more freedoms in certain circles, were still primarily relegated to the domestic sphere (Mariani, 1997). As a matter of fact this is also reflected in the novel where, while women continue to fulfil traditional roles, the men, particularly Challenge, are portrayed as grappling with their diminishment in the face of modernity, capitalism, and colonial displacement (Matthews, 1934). The novel highlights the dissonance Native men feel as they struggle to define themselves within a world that has stripped them of their traditional roles and imposed a foreign concept of time and productivity. Challenge's existential crisis is a reflection of this broader societal emasculation, as he is left with money but no meaningful way to invest his time or assert his masculinity in a world that no longer has a place for him.

Conclusion

Sundown (1934) exemplifies the intricate relationship between history and identity in American Indian literature, as it underscores how the experiences and transformations of Indigenous communities are deeply influenced by the historical forces of colonization and economic change. The novel not only challenges prevalent stereotypes about American Indians — especially concerning masculinity and alcoholism — but also offers a more nuanced and multifaceted representation of Indian identity. It delves into the shifting gender dynamics brought about by colonization and modernization, revealing how men, in particular, faced challenges to their roles and sense of purpose.

The narrative structure in Sundown (1934) serves as a powerful tool for conveying both personal and collective experiences, allowing readers to engage with the emotional and cultural realities of American Indian life. The transition from poverty to wealth, particularly for the Osage tribe, illustrates the complexities of economic change, highlighting the way sudden wealth can lead to crime, disrupt traditional ways of life, and introduce new challenges. Despite these difficulties, the novel reflects a sense of cultural resilience, as characters struggle to navigate their mixed heritage and the conflicting expectations from both their own communities and the dominant white society. This ongoing negotiation of identity reflects the broader resilience of American Indian communities in the face of ongoing challenges.

Ultimately, the novel calls for broader public awareness of American Indian history and literature, emphasizing the importance of engaging with these narratives to foster a deeper understanding and empathy for the complexities of Native American experiences in the modern world.

Bibliographical References

Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. (2019, December 4). Dawes General Allotment Act. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dawes-General-Allotment-Act

Hunter, C. (1982). The protagonist as a mixed-blood in John Joseph Mathews’ novel: “Sundown.” American Indian Quarterly, 6(3/4), 319–337. https://doi.org/10.2307/1183645

Mathews, J. J., & Mathews, V. H. (1988). Sundown. University of Oklahoma Press.

Mariani, G. (1997). Post-tribal epics: The Native American novel between tradition and modernity. Edwin Mellen Press.

Musiol, H. (2012). “Sundown” and “liquid modernity” in Pawhuska, Oklahoma. Journal of American Studies, 46(2), 357–373. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23259141

Snyder, M. (2008). “He certainly didn’t want anyone to know that he was queer”: Chal Windzer’s sexuality in John Joseph Mathews’s Sundown. Studies in American Indian Literatures, 20(1), 27–54. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20737409

Tillett, R. (2007). Contemporary Native American literature. Edinburgh University Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctvxcrx2w

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