Minority or Minoritized Languages? The Catalan Case

Minoritized languages, often referred to as endangered languages, face challenges in comparison to hegemonic languages that possess political, economic, and cultural influence. The vanishing of a language signifies not just the loss of a means of communication, but also the loss of knowledge, traditions, and cultural identities linked to it. According to Fishman (1991), "revitalizing a language is a multifaceted endeavor that necessitates the continuous dedication of the community, political leaders, and education professionals" (p. 69). This article presents the sociolinguistic context of Catalan as a marginalized language, explores the elements that jeopardize the existence of minoritized languages, discusses methods for their preservation and revitalization, and highlights successful models in this field, with particular emphasis on the case of Catalan.

Based on data from Gencat (the official site of the Catalan Government), in Catalonia, a region home to 7.6 million residents, where 1.4 million foreigners have migrated in the past decade, 94.4% of individuals aged 15 and older understand Catalan, 85.5% can read it, 81.2% speak it, and 65.3% write it. Though it exists alongside Spanish and 300 additional languages, it serves as the primary language for 31.5% of those aged 15 and older, and is commonly used by 36.1% of the population. A notable feature of Catalan is its ability to attract speakers, meaning individuals who identify it as their language despite it not being their primary one. In Catalonia, nearly 600.000 individuals, representing 9% of those over 15 years old, have embraced Catalan as their language of identification, despite initially speaking different languages. The appeal of Catalan and its esteemed status is evident in the passing of the language from one generation to another.

Catalan in the Twenty-first Century

The political discourse regarding identity in Catalonia has typically relied on a monolingual romantic notion that contrasts Catalan and Castilian as two opposing languages and identities that cannot coexist. Both native Catalan speakers and people from diverse social, ethnic, and linguistic backgrounds now regularly use different forms of Catalan in various combinations and for multiple purposes in their everyday lives due to globalization. Important topics in contemporary theoretical discussions encompass: cosmopolitanism, the notion of scale, evolving boundaries and blended forms of language and identity, as well as the changing landscape of modern beliefs regarding authenticity and anonymity. In 1981, the new administration started a campaign to "normalize" the Catalan language in Catalonia, meaning to reinstate its usage across all areas of life following years of suppression under Franco and to promote that usage among the Castilian speakers who, after many decades of working, at that time constituted roughly half the population (Woolard, 1990). Catalan proponents argue that immersion education (in public and private schools alike) is mandated by the Statute of Catalan Autonomy and is essential for non-native speakers to attain bilingualism in Catalan, considering the prevailing influence of Castilian in commerce and various urban areas. In contrast, Castilian proponents argue that standard Catalan language instruction breaches children’s rights to receive an education in Castilian, as guaranteed by the Spanish Constitution. These repeated conflicts regarding policy are driven on both sides by feelings of danger primarily derived from the conventional formula of one language, one people, one nation. Woolard and Frekko research (2013) shows that bilingualism and an increasing tendency towards polylingualism in Catalonia are experienced and perceived in diverse manners as linguistic practices, rather than as politically significant symbols, which are not adequately represented in the constantly resurfacing policy discussions.

Figure 1: Sunset in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. (PEXELS)

Catalan Sociolinguistics Research

As per the research by Woolard and Frekko (2013), a majority of participants who spoke Castilian demonstrated cosmopolitan attitudes towards language and identity. In contrast to the few demonstrating "linguistic parochialism", such students exhibited "attitudes favoring accommodation, bilingualism, and diversity" (Trenchs-Parera and Newman, 2009). Moreover, research participants in the majority of the articles appear to be discussing scale, specifically concerning the suitable spatio-temporal context for a language. For instance, should Castilian be considered a "public" language or just a "home" language? A suggested resolution to this discussion in Catalonia is political independence, which could potentially create a legal structure for recognizing Catalan as entirely standard and normative (Silverstein, 2003) in public life, while demoting Castilian to the private sphere with restricted public usage times. This kind of neoliberal commodification challenges the authority of the cherished "genuine" native speaker favored by romantic nationalism. In this compilation, Frekko, Pujolar, Gonzalez, and Soler identify a decline in social authority for Catalan native speakers, directly associated with the importance of standard, literate language forms for job opportunities. In the Catalan situation, it has been government support, not a neoliberal free market, that has generated these. In this context, the government-supported reorganization of linguistic resources eliminates the importance of the native speaker.

Several of the previously mentioned authors discuss cosmopolitanism, scale, and changing boundaries, highlighting the evolving nature of two contemporary ideologies related to linguistic authority: authenticity and anonymity (Gal and Woolard, 2001; Woolard, 2008). The belief in authenticity attributes worth to a language variety to the extent that it conveys the fundamental, unique character of a community or speaker, a perspective linked to romantic particularism. The concept of anonymity asserts that language serves as a valuable, impartial medium of expression accessible to all users, a perspective linked to enlightenment universalism (Woolard, 2008). Multiple contributors in this issue (Pujolar and Gonzalez, Soler, and Woolard) highlight a shift in the locus of authority for Catalan from authenticity to anonymity, and even further toward a nascent legitimizing ideology that contests both of these contemporary narratives (Woolard, 2008). This ideological change is closely linked to the diminishing linguistic authority and even recognition of the Catalan native speaker (Frekko, 2009). As an inherent identity no longer serves as a foundation for Catalanness, it is supplanted by a "civic" identity that utilizes Catalan as a means for developing cosmopolitan identities (see Frekko, Pujolar and Gonzalez, Soler, and Woolard). Although this Catalan civic perspective aligns with the language of anonymity in some respects, it contrasts by highlighting the speakers’ intentional actions and even prioritizing artifice over the "natural" highly esteemed in earlier frameworks.

Figure 2: Spanish and Catalan flags as a bicultural and bilingual country. (PEXELS)

Minority Languages: Threads and Consequences of their Loss

Various external and internal factors threaten the survival of minoritized languages, such as globalization, migration, language regulations, and social integration. As Bourdieu points out, languages ​​are not only tools of communication but also "vehicles of power and agents of domination" (1991, p. 35). This is evident in the situation of minority languages, where dominant languages frequently exert pressure on the linguistic community to conform to majority linguistic standards, as seen in the example of Catalan compared to Spanish within the Spanish State. This issue is worsened by "internal and external migration" that changes the original language environments. As Pujolar describes, "migratory movements can alter the dynamics of linguistic transmission, since new generations may be more attracted to dominant languages ​​in order to better integrate into society" (2007, p. 112).

The disappearance of minority languages has significant impacts on culture and shared knowledge. If a language disappears, its culture, identity and knowledge linked to it are also lost. This loss affects the collective identity of linguistic communities, who see their values, histories and traditions fade away. Language is not only a system of signs, but also a vehicle for unique worldviews that can disappear over time. Fishman (1991) also highlights that the "disappearance of a language is a threat not only to global linguistic diversity, but also to cultural and epistemological diversity" (p. 16), pointing to the irreparable loss of ecological and cultural knowledge when a language dies.

Figure 3: La Boqueria: market in Barcelona with advertisements in Catalan. (PEXELS)

Strategies for Revitalization of Minority Languages

To address the vanishing of minority languages, it is essential to implement a range of strategies that engage the community, local and global authorities, as well as educational organizations. A few of these approaches consist of bilingual education, language recording, media in minority tongues, and legal assistance. According to Vila, "one of the most effective strategies for language revitalization is bilingual education, where children learn minority languages ​​alongside dominant languages" (2019, p. 78). By educating individuals in their native language, the passing down of the language across generations is supported, preserving its vibrancy. Furthermore, the recording and safeguarding of languages via digital formats, videos, literature, and various other media are essential for maintaining endangered languages. Linguistic documentation is essential to ensure that, even if a language is lost as a living language, its legacy does not disappear completely. Laws that guarantee linguistic rights and the recognition of minority languages ​​in the public sphere are also essential for preservation. Pujolar notes that "language policies of normalization, such as those carried out in Catalonia, can favor a change in the trend in the survival of a language" (2007, p. 132).

Numerous instances of linguistic revitalization demonstrate effective strategies that can be employed to preserve languages at risk of disappearing. A well-known example is Modern Hebrew, which was effectively revitalized via education and normalization. Fishman emphasizes that "education and comprehensive language policies have been key in the revitalization of Hebrew, making it a living language spoken by millions of people" (1991, p. 25). In the Catalan context, language policies of normalization have been a model of revitalization. Since the Spanish Constitution of 1978 provided autonomy and self-governance to Catalonia as per the Catalan Statute of Autonomy (1979), “educational institutions must use Catalan as the primary means of communication, for both internal functions, including administrative activities, and external ones”. The 1978 Constitution of Spain, Article 3, Provision 2, clearly declares that “the other Spanish languages will also hold official status in the corresponding autonomous communities”. In 1983, the Language Normalization Act was enacted, a significant law for education and the mass media. This language policy was established to protect the right of children to receive their primary education in Catalan. In 1987, a few years after the Language Normalisation Act (1983), while primary education in Catalonia was conducted solely in Catalan, significant challenges arose because there weren't enough teachers proficient in Catalan. The immersion programs aimed at learning Catalan as a second language (L2), nonetheless, received a favorable response from Hispanic families. Considering that priority in education has been assigned to Catalan, the issue comes up regarding how well children can master Castilian and, more specifically, whether they have partial, effective, good, or complete mastery of the Castilian language. The educational system and the laws that favor the use of Catalan have helped to keep it alive despite the political and social difficulties it has faced. Furthermore, the case of Welsh is another positive example. According to Gumperz and Hymes, "Welsh has experienced a renaissance in recent decades, thanks to bilingual education and the use of Welsh in the media" (1972, p. 220). This model can serve as a reference for other languages ​​in danger of extinction such as Catalan.

Figure 4: Street in Spain with the Spanish flag. (PEXELS)

Conclusion

Pujolar (2007) examined the discussion concerning the future of the Catalan language and concluded that it was also a discussion regarding the Catalan nation and who had the right to take part in the nation's construction. Insofar as Catalan speakers hold a favorable social standing and manage the local governance, and insofar as recognition as a speaker can influence social interactions and access to both symbolic and material resources, discussions about language preservation and policy should not be viewed merely as linguistic or cultural heritage topics, but rather as significant political matters that could impact the social and economic status of communities within a specific region. The remarks by linguist Joan Solà at the Barcelona Colloquium that language quality is a relatively minor concern highlight a widespread recognition that Catalonia's linguistic diversity must not be overlooked. Nonetheless, the majority of contributions reflected the viewpoints of native speakers, whereas the perspectives of other kinds of Catalan users were less represented.

Furthermore, the state of the Catalan media landscape and the priorities of media companies may limit the spread of new narratives, hinder broader audience involvement in specific discussions, and promote the agendas of conservative factions, Spanish nationalists, and others. However, while some individuals may have inclusive intentions, the broader landscape of the discursive field remains one of an ethnonational discourse that marginalizes non-native Catalans. Those who aspire to have the Catalan language prominently featured in the future need to take action beyond creating inclusive texts. They need to create areas for dialogue and involvement to accommodate a more diverse audience. If every Catalan has equal rights in building the nation, regardless of the languages spoken, they have the right to express their opinions and experiences in every area of public life, including the national language.

The endurance of minority languages is a challenge influenced by various social, political, and cultural elements. Despite the challenges encountered by these languages, there are effective strategies to ensure their preservation and revitalization, including bilingual education, comprehensive documentation, and supportive language policies. The situation of minority languages in Catalonia illustrates how communities can advocate for their language and culture, even amidst challenges. As Pujolar (2007) states, "the achievement of linguistic revitalization relies on the dedication of society as a whole, including authorities and linguistic communities" (2007, p. 116), it is crucial to persist in advocating for linguistic diversity as a vital cultural asset for the future.

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