Religious Dualism and Spiritual Identity in Louise Erdrich's “Tracks”

When first encountering Native American literature, one of the elements that immediately surprises the reader is the recurring themes and imagery that connect all texts in this category, albeit in different forms. The subjects that Native American authors hold most dear include trauma and healing, the quest for identity, and the yearning for self-determination. An important role is then occupied by religion and by the nourishment of individual and collective spirituality. Tracks (1988) by Louise Erdrich does a remarkable job of presenting the probable social and religious reality of the Anishinaabe tribes at the beginning of the 20th century.

Tracks is set on a Native American Chippewa reservation in the early 20th century. The story is told by two narrators: Nanapush, an elder, and Pauline Puyat, a young mixed-race woman. They share different perspectives on the tribe, focusing on Fleur Pillager. In 1912, Nanapush rescued Fleur, the sole survivor of her family after a harsh winter. The tribe debates buying back their land from the government. Fleur, believed to have powerful magic, works in Argus and is assaulted by coworkers. A tornado hits, and her attackers die mysteriously. Fleur returns to the reservation, pregnant, with Eli Kashpaw as a possible father. Pauline, increasingly jealous and seeking power, uses magic to manipulate others and has a troubled path to faith, culminating in joining a convent. Conflicts arise over land and money, leading to violence and betrayal within the tribe. By 1924, the government had reclaimed Pillager's land, and Fleur had left after sabotaging the loggers. Nanapush and Margaret eventually bring Fleur’s daughter, Lulu, back to the reservation.

The contrast between Christianity and Ojibwe's traditional beliefs is represented here and appears to almost mirror the opposition between the two narrators. The two religious systems are embodied by characters who differ in lifestyle and beliefs, and everything seems to allude to a genuine conflict between the two faiths. However, a close examination reveals how the two religions occasionally appear to intersect and even overlap each other. This article aims to investigate how and when these points of intersection occur and whether or not we can reasonably come to talk about a combination of the two. The following will be divided into five sections, each of which will serve a different purpose in achieving this goal. The first section will concentrate on how religion affected the indigenous populations of the time, with special attention paid to the Anishinaabe tribes. The two religious systems will be examined as they are portrayed in the novel in sections two and three below. In the fourth segment, Pauline and Margaret's personalities will be examined in order to demonstrate the points of convergence between the two spiritualities. The final part will present the conclusions and considerations drawn from this analysis to respond to the issue that was previously addressed.

Figure 1: Oscar Howe, Umine Dance

The Spread of Christianity among the Anishinaabe tribes

The arrival of Europeans on the American continent is generally considered to represent the beginning of the modern era and a pivotal milestone in world politics and geography. However, the impact of this event was perceived differently by the indigenous populations. For the latter, 1492 represents the point of no return and the beginning of the contamination that will forever alter the fate of the indigenous people. Driven by the desire to spread the word of Christ, the missionaries travelled to every corner of the new continent to carry out the goal of conversion, clashing, however, with the local already existing beliefs.

Although conflicts between the two ideologies frequently caused natives to forcefully convert, in the case of the Anishinaabe tribe, it seems that this movement towards Catholicism took place more smoothly. According to McNally, the promotion of hymn singing within the population was the reason evangelists were able to establish such a significant presence among the Anishinaabe. The hymn singing was translated into Ojibwe by the missionaries to spread and encourage the acquisition of the values and ideals of the dominant culture. These hymns were well received by the community, who embraced them and started to use them even during their religious ceremonies (McNally, 2000). The ease with which the Anishinaabe acquired and executed these songs is likely attributable to the high value that oral tradition and storytelling already held in the native communities.

Additionally, it can be assumed that the embrace of a new doctrine constituted in some ways the lesser of two evils since the Indians probably perceived the presence of the missionaries considerably better than the invaders. With what has been said thus far, however, I do not wish to minimize the violent and traumatic experiences endured by the natives during the attempted eradication of their spiritual identity; rather, I have endeavoured to comprehend the motivations for the Anishinaabe's tolerance of Christianity and the subsequent integration of the ideology.

Figure 2: Beatien Yazz, Fire Dance

The Role of Christianity in the Novel

As previously mentioned, Louise Erdrich's book Tracks has the merit of portraying the two religious systems in use among the Anishinaabe tribe whose stories are narrated, and the roles that the two faiths exercised in the community. The presence of Father Damien, the priest of the village, in the community leads us to believe that at the time the facts were being narrated, a true Christian group was already established and operating in the area.

This assumption is later supported by several events, such as Margaret's regular attendance at Mass or the circumstances surrounding Lulu's birth. The birth of the child is, in fact, immediately followed by the arrival of the priest and the consequent baptism which, as reported by Nanapush, "it was through the custom by which we obliged our friend Father Damien, that of baptism” (Erdrich, 1988, pp. 61). Therefore, even in the absence of a religious belief, the act of baptism is considered a custom that must be observed, and the priest, for his part, is likely aware of the established order and is simply “very pleased to have a new life in their place”.

The cancelled baptism is followed by the recording of the birth in the church archives, giving us the impression that Christianity functioned as a bureaucratic institution with duties that extended beyond the spiritual. This supposition is confirmed in the novel's concluding section when Nanapush is finally able to prove his fatherhood and return Lulu home thanks to documentation from the church archives: “I produced papers from the church record to prove I was your father” (pp. 225). Accordingly, we can deduce that the church's function went well beyond simply promoting spiritual health and that it played a crucial part in maintaining the community's structure and order.

Figure 3: Emmi Whitehorse, Jackstraw

Ojibwe Traditional Beliefs in the Novel

Considering the predominant role played by the church, it could be naturally assumed that the natives' traditional and ancient culture had been lost; several literary references, however, lead us to believe otherwise. One of the elements that undoubtedly exerts one of the greatest influences on the inhabitants of the community is, in fact, Lake Matchimanito. The locals are both fascinated by and terrified of the lake since it is thought to be the home of the monster Misshepeshu, a seductive and charismatic being that preys primarily on young ladies. Pauline herself alerts the readers: “Our mothers warn us that we’ll think he’s handsome … he’s a thing of dry foam, a thing of death by drowning” (Erdrich, 1988, pp. 11). The belief is so powerful that it affects the actions of both natives and villagers who avoid visiting such a cursed location. Despite Catholic indoctrination, the Matchimanito and the Misshepeshu remain vivid in the local conscience and belief, serving as a solid anchor of the tribal past of the inhabited land. Fleur, the sole survivor of multiple drownings, is ostracized by a substantial part of the village since she is thought to be the monster's servant and lover, reinforcing even more how deeply ingrained this idea was in the minds of the locals.

Nanapush embodies the Ojibwe religion and serves as a point of reference for the tribal community. His knowledge of ancient rituals and healing practices keeps the 'Old Gods' alive within the community: “I began to sing slowly, calling on my helpers, until the words came from my mouth but were not mine” (pp. 101). His knowledge of the past enables him to perform ancient rituals and healings, still keeping alive the flame of the "Old Gods" (pp. 110). Therefore, to assume that Christianity had fully replaced the ancient beliefs would be completely inappropriate, given how the old religion was still present in some elements of community life, albeit in a minor way.

Religious Syncretism in Characters: The Case of Pauline and Margaret

Despite what could initially appear to be a strong alignment between the characters and their respective religious systems of belonging, even those whose religion appears unquestionable display inconsistencies and contradictions. Pauline, in particular, is a character full of contradictions. She repeatedly states her desire to fully embrace a white identity, rejecting her tribal heritage. However, her actions often contradict this stated desire. She undergoes extreme punishments to prove that she is an exemplary devotee and dedicates her life to serving Christ. Her fixation on assimilating is such that she is unable to see clearly and appears to be blind to everything else. Regardless, a folk substratum seems to persist in her without her even realizing it. Several instances in the book depict Pauline disproving herself.

Figure 4: Pablita Velarde, Ceremonial Dance

She repeatedly asks Moses (her shaman cousin) for assistance, first so she may benefit from a dream catcher to aid her sleep and then so she can cast a spell on Eli and Sophie. Pauline does not hesitate to rely on ritual and Native American medicine to make her strategy successful: “Surely this strange cousin of hers would pass my plans on, but already it was too late. I couldn’t stop myself” (Erdrich, 1988, pp. 80), completely ignoring and forgetting her goal of distancing herself from “them”. Similarly, towards the end of the novel, when Pauline goes to the lake to confront Satan, in her eyes he exhibits characteristics similar to the ones of the monster Misshepeshu. As suggested by Rainwater, Pauline inherits and draws her knowledge of evil and the supernatural also from her aboriginal upbringing, not realizing she is mixing it with Christianity (pp. 409).

Finally, Margaret Kashpaw serves as the ideal representation of religious syncretism. Despite her predominantly belonging to and practising the old religion, she appears repeatedly throughout the novel at Eucharistic services. The subsequent passage amply demonstrates the earlier-mentioned religious duality:

“From then on she alternated, between the working on her arms, addressing different Manitous along with the Blessed Virgin and Her heart, the sacred bloody lump that the blue robed woman held in the awful picture Margaret kept nailed to her wall.” (Erdrich, 1988, pp. 51).

By balancing her prayers and dedication to these entities, Margaret displays her consistent belief in both the native entities and the Christian God.

Figure 5: Oscar Howe, Onktomi and Ducks

Conclusions

Erdrich's novel sheds light on the aspect of religious dualism sometimes ignored by Native American literature, as there is usually a tendency to oppose the two worlds as different realities without a point of convergence. Not a rare phenomenon and not restricted only to the case of Native Americans, religious syncretism is not exclusive to Native Americans as it is also found in other countries such as Russia where it is known as Dvoeverie: “... 'double belief' or 'dual faith,' which is taken by most scholars to mean the preservation of pagan elements within Christian communities” (Rock, 19).

According to what has been reported so far, it is no longer possible to speak of religious "purity" in the society Erdrich describes because interaction with Europeans permanently altered the locals' culture and identity, resulting in the emergence of a distinctive blend. The sites of intersection between the two religions are numerous and only demonstrate how society has changed over time, adapting to new realities.

Bibliographical References

Erdrich, Louise. Tracks. 1988. Flamingo, 1994. Print.

Friedman, Susan Stanford. “Identity Politics, Syncretism, Catholicism, and Anishinabe Religion in Louise Erdrich’s ‘Tracks.’” Religion & Literature, vol. 26, no. 1, 1994, pp. 107–33. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40059588.

Giorgio Mariani. (1997). Post-tribal epics: the native American novel between tradition and modernity. Edwin Mellen Press.

Ingraffia, Brian D. “‘Deadly Conversions’: Louise Erdrich’s Indictment of Catholicism in Tracks, Love Medicine, and The Last Report on the Miracles at Little No Horse.” Christianity and Literature, vol. 64, no. 3, 2015, pp. 313–30. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26194835.

McNally, Michael D. “The Practice of Native American Christianity.” Church History, vol. 69, no. 4, 2000, pp. 834–59. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3169333.

Rainwater, Catherine. “Reading between Worlds: Narrativity in the Fiction of Louise Erdrich.” American Literature, vol. 62, no. 3, 1990, pp. 405–22. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2926739.

Rock, Stella. “WHAT’S in a WORD?: A HISTORICAL STUDY of the CONCEPT DVOEVERIE.” Canadian-American Slavic Studies, vol. 35, no. 1, 2001, pp. 19–28.

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