The Byliny: Origins, Form, and Cultural Significance in Slavic Epic

Introduction

The term Bylina refers to the epic folk songs of the East Slavic region. This literary genre, rooted in oral tradition, falls somewhere between ballad, folk legend, and fairy tale, yet it is distinguished by its melodious form and essential musical accompaniment. The purpose of this article is to provide a concise overview of the origins, composition, and recurring themes within this significant genre in the Slavic cultural sphere.

The Byliny represent a form of folk art that is neither scholarly nor refined but serves simultaneously as an epic saga, and historical memory for the Slavic people. The defining characteristics of this genre are the use of sung verse and a specific metrical structure. Their genesis is closely linked to the Eastern Slavs' struggle to establish a unified state in defence of Russian lands (Saronne, 1997). Additionally, they provide valuable sources for understanding various aspects of life in the ancient Rus'. The Byliny emerged during the formative period of the unified ancient Russian state and underwent a process of evolution over time. The themes and roster of heroes in this genre were largely established between the 10th and 17th centuries, a period considered the peak of its productive development. The term itself is derived from bylo, the past form of the verb byt (to be), meaning "that which was" or "an event that occurred." The term was first introduced into the scholarly discourse in the 1830s by the ethnographer and folklore specialist I.P. Sakharov (Alexander, 2019). Traditionally, however, the people more frequently referred to these epic songs of heroic content as stariny or starinki.

Figure 1: Vasilisa at the Hut of Baba Yaga

Oral Heritage and Transcription of the Bylina

The byliny possess a layered and heterogeneous nature; whereby elements from a range of historical and cultural epochs may coexist within a single epic. This stratified nature arises from the oral transmission process, making it likely that the versions of byliny available today differ significantly from their original medieval forms. As byliny were solely preserved through oral tradition, the only form of documentation that remains is transcription. The earliest known transcription was made in 1619 by Sir Richard James (Pieralli, 2005), though the first recognized byliny transcriber was the Slavophile Kireevsky (Pieralli, 2005), who viewed the Russian peasant as the guardian of ethical and moral wholeness—an ideal ultimately expressed through the epic oral tradition. In the 1860s, transcriptions by Gil´ferding appeared, which were notable for being the first to be conducted according to scientific criteria. Furthermore, the scholar also conducted a sociological study on the skaziteli (narrators), concluding that the majority were illiterate and viewed byliny material as cultural heritage to be preserved and transmitted, rather than material for subjective interpretation (Saronne, 1997). Favourable conditions for performing the byliny often arose during winter in the forests, on short, dark days, and at celebrations when lumberjacks would gather in the izbas to spend time together (Saronne, 1997).

As a form of oral heritage, the byliny are the result of a collective creative process. It is presumed that a text is originally created by an individual, but it becomes a collective creation only when it is embraced and validated by the community. Nevertheless, in the forging of the epic, there exists a factor of individuality that resides in the personal actions exercised by the narrator over the texts. Moreover, a distinction is drawn between typical and transitional locales: the former, usually descriptive in nature, comprises of portions of text that remain unchanged and are memorized by the singer, while the latter are passages that serve to connect the fixed sections. It is precisely in managing the intersections between these two functions that the personality of the performer is expressed. The specific functional use of certain transitional passages over others constitutes a variant from the original text.

In the modern era, it is the geographical areas of the north that provide us with the most comprehensive and diverse legacy of byliny. Yet, the epic songs did not originate in the north but in the central and southern regions of European Russia. Over the centuries, corresponding to specific historical circumstances (such as the decree on pomest'ya in the mid-16th century, which prompted a mass exodus of the peasant population from the central areas to the far north and east), these epic songs followed migratory patterns from south to north (Saronne, 1997). The preservation of the byliny epic in a specific area of Russia is not coincidental. It is only in these regions that the requisite conditions for the phenomenon's persistence have been maintained, including widespread illiteracy, the absence of industrialization, and the lack of state institutions.

Figure 2: Zmey Gorynych, a three-headed dragon from Russian folklore.

The Research Theories

Philologists first became aware of the vast byliny repertoire only in the 1860s, and scholarly approaches to studying these epics have since been organized into distinct "schools", each with its own methodologies and research objectives.

The Mythological School sought to identify within the byliny traces of a supposed pan-Slavic, Indo-European mythology, interpreting the epics as narratives about Slavic pagan deities. In the 19th century, authentic knowledge of the ancient myths of early Slavic societies was insufficient, resulting in the reconstruction of these myths through indirect means (Gil'ferding, 1873).

Proponents of the Assimilationist theory, on the other hand, aimed to uncover parallels between Russian byliny and the epics of other cultures. They postulated that certain epic themes and elements may have migrated from India, Iran, and Turkey. Some researchers proposed a Byzantine origin for certain byliny themes (Saronne, 1997). Representatives of the Historical School, meanwhile, endeavoured to reconstruct the history of the Rus’ and Muscovy using historical, topographic, and demographic data drawn from the byliny (Saronne, 1997). However, a limitation of this approach was that it often treated the byliny as if they were fully reliable historical documents, thereby overlooking their artistic and mythological dimensions.

The Mystification of Mythology and Christianity

Oral traditions have, at least partially, influenced written production due to their ancient origins. The oral culture predates writing, which emerged in the Slavic world alongside Christianization. Despite the development of written forms, oral traditions preserved their continuity, and popular epics retained numerous references to paganism, magic, and shamanism as for an extended period, the Russian populace remained deeply rooted in pagan practices (Saronne, 1997). The struggle against this underlying paganism—symbolized in byliny by battles against dragons—is likely also to have resulted in the destruction of secular-inspired texts. Within the epic tradition, distinct phases emerged that trace the progression from a mythical, non-anthropocentric worldview to a historically informed and Christianized one, where the influence of the Gospel contributed to the removal of pagan cultural elements during this period. One might distinguish between an archaic, prehistoric, pre-Kievan epic, dating before the 10th century and thus pre-Christian, and a classic, historical, Kyivan epic (Pieralli, 2005). Between these two phases, a genuine blending occurred, particularly as elements of statehood, the defence of Rus’, and the figure of the bogatyr (heroic warrior) were introduced into the older byliny during the Kyivan period. Although byliny was initially rooted in mythical elements, it subsequently diverged from these origins. As the mythic aspects faded, the epic became increasingly anthropocentric, transitioning from a mythologized worldview, in which humans were subject to the supremacy of natural forces, to a humanistic perspective. In this new view, individuals, having partially freed themselves from subjugation, began to exert control over these forces, engaging in heroic battles against them. Byliny were preserved through oral tradition and circulated within lower social strata, therefore, numerous examples have endured to the present.

Figure 3: The little humpbacked horse

The Mythological Element

The bylina literature preserves a number of mythological motifs, we find themes including the earth cult, the figure of the dragon-serpent, miraculous conception, and the metamorphosis of certain bogatyri. In the bylina epic tradition, the earth cult represents enduring pagan spirituality, which, despite the arrival of Christianity, remained relatively intact over centuries (Saronne, 1997). In this context, humanity is perceived as an integral part of the natural universe, regarded as the terrestrial embodiment of the divine. Heaven and Earth align with archaic deities embodying the male and female principles that form the basis of the cosmos. It seems plausible to suggest that the roots of earth worship can be traced beyond Russia, to a possible Asian origin.

In bylina texts, the epithet matushka zemlya (“moist mother earth” or “fertile mother earth”) is often encountered, which conveys an ancient, deifying conception of the land (Pieralli, 2005). This Mother Earth is omnipotent and omniscient, providing responses to humanity's queries. Primarily, she is, above all, the dark, fertile womb of the nurturing earth—a cosmic deity embodying a singular life-giving principle. The epithet conveys the myth of the earth's fertilization through the intervention of the sky, where the earth represents the feminine principle of creation, and her maternity encompasses all that exists upon her (Pieralli, 2005). Moisture is her essential attribute, signifying her generative capacity. In the popular mythological imagination, the earth is wed to the sky, fertilized through rain, lightning, and other celestial forces. Peasants recognized moist Mother Earth as possessing a vengeful spirit. According to folk beliefs, certain acts were forbidden, as they contravened the principles she embodied: the earth would respond to such transgressions by becoming barren, shaking, or even exacting fatal retribution (Pieralli, 2005). She upholds the law of life and is not always forgiving; she can cruelly retaliate, terrify, rend, and upheave. As the guardian of a moral law, all, including the bogatyri, are bound to honour her.

The byliny recounts the exploits of the bogatyri, the powerful warriors of ancient Russia.— They are described as valiant and noble defenders of Rus’ against all forms of peril, both geopolitical (such as defending against external foes) and mythical (fighting supernatural forces). The term bogatyr originates from bog, which, among the ancient Slavs, shares the same root as bogatstvo (wealth), and could also be linked to blago (goodness), encompassing a range of meanings related to fortune and success (Alexander, 2019). However, any association with the term bog as a reference to the deity of “God” should be avoided. The heroes of the Bylina epic are human heroes who, despite some supernatural traits, consistently embody humanity and are never otherworldly entities. The bogatyris are divided into two categories: the elder bogatyri, the most ancient figures, and the younger, more numerous bogatyri (Alexander). The elder group belongs to a venerable antiquity, often intertwined with mythology, and is frequently linked to natural forces or phenomena, though limited information exists on them. The young Kyivan bogatyri more accurately reflect Kyivan's history, despite their deeds frequently transcend the fantastical and mythical realms. These younger bogatyri embody the unique Kyivan blend of chivalric values, Christianity, and an unrelenting struggle against the steppe peoples (Saronne, 1997).

The most renowned elder bogatyri are Svyatogor, Volkh Vseslav'evich, and Mikhailo Potyk, forming the most archaic bylina triad.

Figure 4: Copper Mountain Mistress

The Feminine Element

Although the Russian epic tradition is predominantly male-centred, female figures play significant roles, beginning with Mother Earth—a foundational presence that inspires every heroic undertaking. Alongside the bogatyri (heroic warriors) are the poljanicy or bogatyrsy, heroines who frequently evince abilities that parallel, and occasionally even surpass, those of their male counterparts. The Mother of the bogatyri is depicted as a gentle, nurturing figure, offering guidance and encouragement. This is exemplified in the tale of Dobrynja and the dragon, where she lovingly attempts to dissuade him from going into battle (Saronne, 1997). Another central figure is the “wise counsellor-bride,” who often offers counsel the hero, even if when she is associated with his adversaries, as in the story of Volch, where the Raja’s wife warns him of the hero’s approach.

The bond between woman and dragon-serpent represents sin and a return to paganism: the hero Volch, born from a union with a serpent, embodies both courage and power, though he is the product of an “illegitimate” love (Saronne, 1997). The motif of bride abduction is also further explored in the story of Prince Vladimir and Dunaj, who, after being rejected by the Lithuanian king, abducts the gentle Opraksja, but soon becomes captivated by the warrior Nastas’ja, who ultimately agrees to marry him. In this context, the bogatyr woman is depicted as being both skilled and courageous, while simultaneously retaining a fragile, human side.

Linguistic and Structural Characteristics of the Byliny

The byliny feature distinct linguistic and grammatical traits as well as formal structural patterns that root them in an ancient cultural framework. From a linguistic perspective, the byliny retains archaic elements, such as the post-positioned indefinite article, a feature long vanished from modern Russian but likely preserved in the byliny to fulfil rhythmic and musical demands (Saronne, 1997). The language also incorporates archaic forms found in northern dialects, with unique characteristics like contracted present-tense verb forms, frequent omission of third-person singular verb endings, and prevalent use of short-form adjectives, all reflective of northern Russian speech patterns.

From a structural standpoint, the byliny are set in an archaic time period often marked by ongoing resistance to paganism, and adhere to a recurring narrative sequence. A typical bylina begins with the hero preparing to invade enemy territory, which may entail military training or an approach to the enemy’s domain (Alexander, 2019). This leads to an encounter with the enemy, or with a hostile force in which the hero may not always be portrayed positively; for instance, in the byliny about Svjatogor, the hero represents a negative force and is ultimately defeated by his antagonist. The hero’s victory over the enemy and the destruction of the hostile force is a key narrative arc, though some tales conclude instead with the hero’s death. The enigmatic suicide of Dunaj, despite his earlier success, suggests a need for the hero to atone, perhaps for having taken a pagan woman, underscoring the theme of unresolved ties to pagan customs that result in tragic ends, as evidenced in the case of Svjatogor.

Another narrative element distinguishing some byliny is the banquet held at Vladimir’s court, during which heroic feats are either recounted or discussed. Finally, the magical birth and control over occult forces in the stories of Volga and Volch separate these tales from the others, emphasizing their strictly pagan inspiration and presenting these magic-practising heroes as positive figures within the context of the byliny.

Figure 5: Firefly

Conclusions

The byliny embody a unique synthesis of myth, history, and collective memory, serving as both cultural and narrative anchors for the East Slavic people. Born of oral tradition, these epic songs were preserved through centuries not only as a source of entertainment but as bearers of cultural values, religious beliefs, and communal identity. The byliny reflect the Slavic struggle for unity and survival, especially through their themes of heroic battles against enemies and natural forces. Moreover, their language and structure capture archaic forms and regional dialects, underscoring the byliny's origins in the diverse linguistic landscape of Russia. Through their portrayal of mythic heroes and heroines, supernatural creatures, and pagan imagery, the byliny documents a complex dialogue between Slavic paganism and the rising influence of Christianity, showing the gradual shift from an animistic worldview toward a more human-centred narrative. The persistence of the byliny, particularly in northern Russia where oral traditions were resilient to change, highlights the adaptability and longevity of these epics. Ultimately, the byliny are not merely literary treasures but serve as windows into the premodern Russian psyche, blending themes of bravery, spirituality, and the interplay of myth and reality that continue to resonate in the present day.

Bibliographical References

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Visual References