The Evolution of the English Novel Series: Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" and the Emergence of the Modern Novel

Foreward

The novel represents an enduring testament to human creativity and narrative resourcefulness, captivating readers across cultures and epochs with its unique combination of accessibility and profundity. Its remarkable capacity to connect diverse themes and perspectives renders it an indispensable foundation of literary discourse, transcending temporal and spatial boundaries. The English novel, specifically, stands as a pivotal cornerstone in literary history, its heavy influence reverberating across the expanse of global literature, shaping contemporary literary landscapes in profound and multifaceted ways. The series examines of the genesis and evolution of the novel, with a particular focus on its emergence and development within the English literature from the 17th to the 19th centuries. Through an interdisciplinary lens, the articles will delve into works by luminaries such as Austen and Dickens, enlightening the multifaceted landscape of narrative novelty and cultural commentary that defines this epochal genre.

The series will be structured into six articles:

1. The Evolution of the English Novel Series: The Rise of the English Novel

2. The Evolution of the English Novel Series: Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" and the Emergence of the Modern Novel

3. The Evolution of the English Novel Series: Horace Walpole's "The Castle of Otranto" and the Birth of Gothic Fiction

4. The Evolution of the English Novel Series: Jane Austen's "Pride and Prejudice" and the Bildungsroman Tradition

5. The Evolution of the English Novel Series: Sir Walter Scott's "Ivanhoe" and the Rise of the Historical Novel

6. The Evolution of the English Novel Series: Intricacies of Victorian Realism in Charles Dickens's "Bleak House"

Introduction

Defoe's Robinson Crusoe is one of the most researched and analysed literary texts in the literary scene, and its allure has inspired the creation of several multimedia products, including films and television series. The work was composed between 1718 and 1719 and published in the same year. The novel was inspired by a historical occurrence, to which Defoe makes reference. The incident in question is Alexander Selkirk's voyage to South America. During the navigation, Selkirk disagreed with the commander and decided not to continue the expedition but to stay on the island of Juan Fernandez. He stayed there for four years before being hauled aboard by another ship in 1709. After two years they arrived in England, where the story became known. Many intellectuals were intrigued by the story, including Richard Steele, who wrote about Selkirk's journey in an article entitled "The Englishman". Defoe refers to this incident because he was writing essays in support of South American colonial expansion at the time. Crusoe Island is located in the Atlantic Ocean, near the mouth of the Orinoco River; its strategic location favours English colonial policy. The novel also emphasises two contrasting interpretations of colonisation - the Spanish greed as opposed to the English work ethic. Robinson creates a small personal empire through his bourgeois qualities, contrasting himself with the rapacious Spanish model.

The novel is extremely innovative for a number of reasons, one of which is Defoe's high regard for realism. For the first time in literature, we see an attempt to be as close to reality as possible, even going so far as to provide the geographical coordinates of the shipwreck, as previously mentioned. Another attempt at realism is Defoe's use of the narrator. The character of Robinson is in fact split: as the old narrator and as the young version of himself who appears in the story. The novel aims to explore this relationship when Defoe presents himself as the editor of the text, claiming that he did not write the story, but rather collected it and was inspired to share it. The purpose of this device is to raise expectations and create a horizon of anticipation.

The novel is divided into three parts: Robinson's exploits prior to the disaster, his stay on the island, and his return to England. The first section describes Robinson's experiences and adventures before his arrival on the island. It can thus be referred to as Robinson's adventure. Events unfold quickly, and the narration follows the form of an adventure story, combining elements of romance and adventure. This division is further emphasised by the fact that the novel mimics autobiography and is divided into two parts: the narrating self and the narrated self.

There are also two dominant interpretations of the novel. The first favours the economic dimension, viewing Robinson as the first example of Homo Economics in literature, that is, the pursuit of money as the world's common denominator. The second reading emphasises a religious perspective. In this article, both will be briefly presented to the reader.

Figure 1: The Storm on the Sea of Galilee

Father-son conflict and the condition of the Middle Class

There are two main reasons why Robinson Crusoe is a novel that deserves our attention in this series. The first is that the text represents a milestone in the history of the novel, defining new perspectives for all future writers. The second reason is the social importance of the text, since it perfectly embodies the expectations of the middle class (as mentioned in the previous article, this is the class from which the novel comes and for which it was originally created). Indications of this situation can be found in the novel itself, particularly in the passage dealing with the conflict between Robinson and his father. The rivalry between father and son is primarily a generational struggle between two individuals who represent opposing value systems. The father, appealing to his brothers, had invited Robinson to stay because of his "rambling thoughts" (Defoe, p. 62), defined as the tendency to wander or to live the life of a wanderer without purpose or goal. The father embodies a set of values ​​that are more conservative than those of his son. According to the father, the idea of ​​improving one's condition by undertaking extraordinary ventures is something intended for the poor or those who aspire to a great fortune.

“He told me it was for Men of desperate Fortunes on one Hand, or of aspiring, superior Fortunes on the other, who went abroad upon Adventures, to rise by Enterprize, and make themselves famous in Undertakings of a Nature out of the common Road; that these things were all either too far above me, or too far below me; that mine was the middle State, or what might be called the upper Station of Low Life, which he had found by long Experience was the best State in the World, the most suited to human Happiness, not exposed to the Miseries and Hardships, the Labour and Sufferings of the mechanick Part of Mankind, and not embarass’d with the Pride, Luxury, Ambition and Envy of the upper Part of Mankind.” (Defoe, 63)

This can be seen as a tribute to the middle class, or more specifically to Robinson's family's position in society as merchants. The middle class was best placed to ensure happiness, as it was not exposed to the worries and sufferings of the lower classes, the hardships of manual labourers, or the feelings that prevailed in the upper echelons of society.

Figure 2: The game of the slipper hunting Game scene in an English bourgeois interior

To further support his thesis, the patriarch of the Crusoe family insists that this is the condition most envied by all others, it is the position to which the wise man aspires. He believes that all misfortune belongs to either the higher or the lower classes, and urges his son to reflect on this aspect. Robinson's father's values are defined by keywords such as application, industry, and moderation, which promote self-control. He argues that the lives of the men in the middle are smoother. The elderly father encourages his son not to rush into storms; his task is to discourage him. There is always a distinction between rational arguments and irrational dimensions.

The first part of the novel therefore presents us with a generational conflict between two universes, the former represented by the father's critical words and the latter by Robinson's desire for restlessness and freedom. Sartoli believes that Robinson and his father embody two types of bourgeoisie since Robinson surpasses his father by collecting his inheritance and exceeding it. As will be shown later, the old narrator Robinson finds himself in agreement with the figure and words of his father, which he even defines as prophetic, identifying his restlessness as his sin. Locke identifies restlessness as one of the fundamental motivations of human action, overturning what Pascal had said before. According to him, all of man's unhappiness stems from the inability to sit still: "For the chief malady of man is restless curiosity about things which he cannot understand, and it is not so bad for him to be in error as to be curious to no purpose.” (Pascal, 1670). Restlessness was a disgrace for Pascal; it aligns with the opinion of the protagonist's father. Throughout the course of the narrative, Robinson claims to want to examine his own sentence. To accomplish this, he employs an accounting technique in which he assesses the negative and positive aspects as "evil and good".

“I now began to consider seriously my Condition, and the Circumstance I was reduc’d to, and I drew up the State of my Affairs in Writing, not so much to leave them to any that were to come after me, for I was like to have but few Heirs, as to deliver my Thoughts from daily poring upon them, and afflicting my Mind; and as my Reason began now to master my Despondency, I began to comfort my self as well as I could, and to set the good against the Evil, that I might have something to distinguish my Case from worse, and I stated it very impartially, like Debtor and Creditor, the Comforts I enjoy’d, against the Miseries I suffer’d, Thus,”(Defoe, 57)

These two categories are treated by Robinson as the economic categories of debt and credit. Robinson is a great archetype because he embodies the spirit of the emerging bourgeoisie in an exemplary way, transforming himself into a literary myth. This kind of reading sees Robinson as a self-made man, that is, someone who, starting from the bottom, achieves merit through his own efforts. In this sense, another significant element is the wreck, which contains what is necessary for Robinson's survival, but also serves as a metaphor for the legacy of the past that must be overcome.

Robinson celebrates rationalism, which allows us to regulate and modify reality by drawing and quartering, by applying rational judgement to everything, and by becoming masters of the mechanical arts. Rousseau argues in L'Émile that Robinson Crusoe is the only book he would let his child read. He found in it exemplary ideals and a text of great educational value. The novel also proposes the theme of the voyage, which Robinson presents as a story of guilt and atonement. In this novel, the terms 'deliver' and 'deliverer' have a meaning that transcends literary definitions. Robinson believes that he can be liberated from the condition in which he finds himself, that of a castaway on an island. In truth, these expressions will have a specific theological meaning in the scene of conversion, which will be the subject of our discussion below.

Figure 3: Views Across Frenchman's Bay from Mt. Desert Island, After a Squall

Religious Interpretation

This second interpretation does not contradict the first. It gained popularity in the mid-twentieth century when literary critics noted similarities between Robinson Crusoe and the autobiographies of the Puritans. Correspondence with The Pilgrim's Progress, an allegorical text in which the protagonist travels from the City of Desolation to the Celestial City, reveals numerous indicators of Robinson's almost religious journey. For that matter, Robinson's conversion nine months after landing, which takes place while he is unwell, seems to represent the development of a new self.

“But before I lay down, I did what I never had done in all my Life, I kneel’d down and pray’d to God to fulfil the Promise to me, that if I call’d upon him in the Day of Trouble, he would deliver me; after my broken and imperfect Prayer was over.”(Defoe,81)

This is a topos of Puritan autobiography. The illness of the body alludes to the illness of the soul and the healing process of the soul is called conversion. All this is preceded in the novel by a dream of prophetic significance and the story of Robinson's gradual rediscovery of God. Robinson Crusoe is given a religious reading because it tells a story of guilt, repentance, and atonement.

Numbers also have a fundamental value and function. Eight is a recurring number and has a precise meaning in Puritan religious literature. In fact, eight represents divine judgement. Another crucial element in the story is when Robinson notices that some barley leaves have sprouted and interprets this as a sign of God's benevolence, although he later recalls that when he shook a sack, some seeds fell out, causing the sprouting.

Robinson discovers a Bible while searching for tobacco and begins to read it carefully. With this narrative sequence, Defoe questions Robinson's conversion, using this juxtaposition of the sacred and the profane to describe Robinson's religious beliefs. "Lord be my help, for I am in great distress" is a micro-quotation from the Bible (Jeremiah vv 1.20) and the first prayer Robinson addresses to heaven. The narrated self identifies with the perspective that all this could have happened simply because he was ill. Puritan literature associates physical illness with spiritual illness.

Figure 4: Robinson Crusoe and his man Friday

Robinson interprets the verse of the Psalm in a literal and material way, doubting the possibility of freeing himself from the condition of a castaway. As a good Puritan, he begins the practice of reading the Bible daily, while acknowledging that he has lived a sinful life. Robinson's conversion process after reading the Bible begins when he calls on Jesus and asks for repentance. The awareness he gains comes from the healing of his body and spirit, which helps him to read the Psalm in a new way.

“Have I not been deliver’d, and wonderfully too, from Sickness? from the most distress’d Condition that could be, and that was so frightful to me, and what Notice I had taken of it? Had I done my Part? God had deliver’d me, but I had not glorify’d him; that is to say, I had not own’d and been thankful for that as a Deliverance, and how cou’d I expect greater Deliverance?” (Defoe, 82)

"Deliverance" refers to emancipation from guilt rather than from the island. The narrative sequence concludes with a few unresolved questions. Robinson's fault lies within the circle of providence, but the guilt persists. All of his travels serve to redeem his soul, allowing him to attain salvation. He unites economic and religious visions. Looking at what happens without interpreting it, Robinson's success is part of a divine plan to achieve his goal by continuing to travel. Economic success is the result of all the actions taken. That is what the text says, not Robinson. Success becomes a symbol of choice, merging the religious and economic components.

The Relationship with the Other

Between 1500 and 1600, travel accounts portrayed the Other in a prejudiced way. The analysis of the realities of these populations was done by superimposing Western realities on them. In this context, when travellers were obsessively tormented by the fear of encountering cannibals, Dafoe reflects on their guilt and malice, considering that they are not to blame because they are unaware of their wrongdoing.

Cannibals symbolize the possibility of psychic disintegration, embodying the fear of losing self-control and the fragmentation of the self. However, in the sequence culminating in the rescue of Friday, who was about to be devoured, Robinson reflects that the cannibals are not to blame because they have not received divine revelation. Robinson questions his own desire to exterminate them, realising that he has no right to judge them if God allows them to live this way. They do not believe they are committing a sin; they do not experience it as guilt. This seems to introduce a form of cultural relativism: for them, consuming human flesh is akin to consuming pork. For Robinson, they are not cruel; those who kill prisoners of war are the cruel ones. Robinson justifies killing as an act of self-defence.

Figure 5: Robinson Crusoe and Friday build

Friday is grateful for Robinson's rescue. He offers himself to him, instinctively assuming the role of a servant. Robinson first teaches him to speak before baptising him and giving him the name Friday. The first words he teaches him are "yes, no, master", and he shows him how to eat and drink milk from an earthen bowl.

In writing Robinson Crusoe, Defoe draws inspiration from what many consider to be the first novel in history, Aphra Benn's Oroonoko. Prince Oronoko is killed and revered as a statuesque beauty with an ebony face and piercing eyes. Aphra creates a portrait of an attractive African prince with European features. Friday's description is remarkably similar to Aphra's.

As we went by the Place where he had bury’d the two Men, he pointed exactly to the Place, and shew’d me the Marks that he had made to find them again, making Signs to me, that we should dig them up again, and eat them; at this I appear’d very angry, express’d my Abhorrence of it, made as if I would vomit at the Thoughts of it, and beckon’d with my Hand to him to come away, which he did immediately, with great Submission. (Defoe, 231)

This is Robinson's second attempt to "civilise" Friday. They both go to the burial site of the two men and Friday wants to dig them up to eat them. The meeting with Friday is preceded by a prophetic dream in which Robinson dreams of escaping from the island, and this can be understood as a need for the other. However, the relationship between the two men is not one of friendship, but of hierarchy, as it unfolds in hierarchical terms. Robinson, as a white man, embodies power, whereas the native, who shows emotionality and feminine traits, represents a submissive position. Joyce will assert that Robinson is the true symbol of British conquest, whereas Friday symbolizes the subjugated races. Unjust and racist as this attitude may be, it was by no means uncommon at the time the novel was written; in fact, it was sadly the norm. Today, fortunately, we can read this book and appreciate Defoe's stylistic innovations and genius while distancing ourselves from these outdated and offensive perspectives.

Conclusions

The interpretations mentioned in the preceding paragraphs are only a few of the many that Defoe's novel has inspired; nevertheless, they all successfully demonstrate how revolutionary the work was in the context of eighteenth-century literature. With its inherent contradictions, the text serves as a precursor to the tradition of the modern realist novel. Its narrative structure, feauturing a split narrator and meticulous accounts of daily life and survival, was groundbreaking for its time and influenced the development of the novel as a genre. The story explores themes of survival, self-reliance, colonialism, redemption and the resilience of the human spirit in the face of adversity. In addition, the novel resonated with the emerging middle class by embodying their aspirations, values and beliefs, making it a relatable and influential work for its contemporary audience. The literary legacy of Robinson Crusoe is profound, inspiring numerous adaptations, interpretations and scholarly analyses that continue to explore its themes and significance. Its influence on subsequent literary works, which draw inspiration from its themes, narrative techniques and character development, cements its place as a foundational text in the English literary tradition.

Bibliographical References

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Bond, D. F., & Sherburn, G. (2003). The Literary History of England. Routledge.

Defoe, D. (2012). The adventures of Robinson Crusoe. Sovereign. (Original work published 1719)

Eide, S. D. (2010). Locke, Tocqueville, Liberalism, and Restlessness.

J Paul Hunter. (1990). Before novels : the cultural contexts of eighteenth-century English fiction. Norton.

Robinson Crusoe Island. (2021, January 22). Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robinson_Crusoe_Island

Saintsbury, G., & Ray. (2005). A Short History of English Literature. Atlantic Publishers & Dist.

Sartoli, G. (1719). I due Robinson [Review of The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, by D. Defoe].

Introduction to the 1998 Giulio Einaudi edition of The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe

Watt, I. (2015). The rise of the novel : studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding. The Bodley Head.

Visual References