The Evolution of the English Novel 101: The Rise of the English Novel
Foreward
The novel represents an enduring testament to human creativity and narrative resourcefulness, captivating readers across cultures and epochs with its unique combination of accessibility and profundity. Its remarkable capacity to connect diverse themes and perspectives renders it an indispensable foundation of literary discourse, transcending temporal and spatial boundaries. The English novel, specifically, stands as a pivotal cornerstone in literary history, its heavy influence reverberating across the expanse of global literature, shaping contemporary literary landscapes in profound and multifaceted ways. The series examines of the genesis and evolution of the novel, with a particular focus on its emergence and development within the English literature from the 17th to the 19th centuries. Through an interdisciplinary lens, the articles will delve into works by luminaries such as Austen and Dickens, enlightening the multifaceted landscape of narrative novelty and cultural commentary that defines this epochal genre.
The series will be structured into six articles:
The Evolution of the English Novel 101: The Rise of the English Novel
The Evolution of the English Novel 101: Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" and the Emergence of the Modern Novel
The Evolution of the English Novel 101: Horace Walpole's "The Castle of Otranto" and the Birth of Gothic Fiction
The Evolution of the English Novel 101: Jane Austen's "Pride and Prejudice" and the Bildungsroman Tradition
The Evolution of the English Novel 101: Sir Walter Scott's "Ivanhoe" and the Rise of the Historical Novel
The Evolution of the English Novel 101: Intricacies of Victorian Realism in Charles Dickens's "Bleak House"
An Introduction to the Narrative Text: Defining the Novel
Before delving into the origins of the English novel and the historical setting in which it occurred, it is important to explain the characteristics of a narrative text. It is significant to focus on this matter beforehand since it emphasises how much this new genre represented a departure from all preceding ones, which had stabilised themselves over time for centuries. Gérard Genette (1930-2018) a prominent French literary theorist and critic, who was known for his work on narrative theory and structuralism, defined narration as the act of making statements and a social practice in which two or more people share a story (Genette, 2014). In the case of narrative and literary communication, we find ourselves faced with the mediation of writing and printing.
An author of a story cannot see the reaction of the actual reader, just as the reader will not be able to ask the author questions. The author must therefore include all the information necessary in the work itself: to be read and understood. The narrative text has within it all the necessary mechanisms for reading and understanding yet it still requires the presence of a reader who activates the implicit mechanisms. The author is responsible for the recognition and collection all of the mechanisms used for narrative communication, whereas the reader is responsible for identifying all of the script's devices and narrative structures that help to provide a number of possible paths of interpretation (Bernardelli & Ceserani, 2005). This interaction and co-dependence between author and reader is one of the defining characteristics that make the genre of a novel unique. The concepts discussed above will help us better understand, in this and subsequent articles, the intricate connections between authors, readers, and their historical contexts.
When discussing the novel, we are referring to a specific literary genre. By this definition, we usually mean a category employed to organize literature into clearer and more defined structures, encompassing works that share common characteristics in form and content. Historically, genre had a primarily normative and prescriptive role. Today, however, the term genre serves as an organizing principle. Although they can evolve over time, there is always a dialectical relationship between text and its genre: the former can be crafted according to the conventions of a specific category, as such, it can also contribute to the transformation of the latter.
However, the debate over literary genres is considerably older than the seventeenth century. One of the earliest mentions of the conception and categorization of literature into this matter dates back to 1543 when Giovambattista Giraldi Cinzio published "Discourse or Letter on the Composition of comedies and tragedies" (Gardini, 2002). In the "Letter" Giraldi examines the relationship with the Euripides model of the Cyclops and analyses the relationship between tradition and innovation within the development of a new theatrical play. Furthermore, the Letter aims to fill the hole left by ancient treatise writers regarding satyr drama by emphasising the importance of theatrical performance and the requirement for a well-written text that can be read and represented on stage (Andrisano).
Subsequently, around 1800, Hegel's Aesthetics identifies three genres: epic (objective), lyric (subjective), and theatre (synthesis). The study of these is inextricably linked to a historical evaluation of the works: once their origins have been identified with an archetypal text and certain characteristics of the archetype have been extracted, the study of it is represented by its historical transformations in its distinguishing features (Gardini, 2002). With the emergence of the novel, it is instantly evident that it cannot be categorised into any existing group, and hence it is a genre that must carve out a niche in the literary world of the time.
It is also necessary to draw an etymological distinction between novel and romance as it is not uncommon for speakers of Neo-Latin languages to confuse the two. Romance is derived from the corresponding French word "romance," which recalls the Romance language and all Romance languages and defines a specific type of text. Historically, "romance" referred to a type of narrative fiction that originated in the mediaeval period, typically involving chivalric heroes, adventurous quests, and courtly love. The term "novel" on the other hand, is derived from the word "novella," meaning "small tale, generally of love" (Sherburn, 2003). It typically refers to literature with a high level of realism. To date, the OED provides the finest definition of a novel, describing it as a prose narrative of a fictional nature, of great length, in which actions and characters are reproduced in real life and portrayed by a sophisticated storyline. Indeed, one of the novel's key features is its tendency to represent reality and daily life. Ian Watt, a highly renowned British literary critic and historian, is among the first to contribute to the study of the novel as a literary genre; he establishes the concept of formal realism in relation to the latter.
The Essence of Formal Realism: Its Role in Shaping the Novel
Watt focuses on the categorization of realism and states that the term realism itself is a relatively recent definition that appears for the first time in the context of art criticism in 1835 to designate the truth of Rembrandt's painting as opposed to the ideality of neoclassical painting, which aims to represent ideal forms that hide behind the infinite variety of phenomena, while Rembrandt restores the concreteness of reality. In reference to literature, however, the term was given official status in France with the establishment of the journal "Realisme," and thus became a category of text analysis. Realist literature presents stories about ordinary individuals in their daily lives. In formal realism, the meaning remains almost identical. The Novel portrays the life of ordinary people with a touch of formalism. Watt emphasises that the innovative element encompasses not just the material but also the narrative procedures used. He also contends that a favourable cultural atmosphere is required to present these types of stories.
From here, it is crucial to identify philosophical foundations of formal realism. Watt approaches this task with a variety of considerations. In mediaeval scholastic philosophy, the term Realia (real things) referred to abstractions and notions, as well as abstract universals. However, beginning in the seventeenth century, an orientation emerged that challenged realia as universal. Watt recognises this approach in Locke and Descartes. Empiricism claims that knowledge originates from experience, and ideas are the consequence of a process that begins with the perception of reality through the senses (Quinton et al., 2024). Descartes, on the other hand, speaks of clear and distinct ideas, of a deductive process, however, it shares with empiricism an anti-traditionalist attitude and the idea that knowledge is a process that concerns the individual in his singularity (Watson, 2024), the truth does not simply consist in referring to a consolidated tradition, but is the result of a free investigation carried out by each individual. The evolution of all of these philosophical ideas, while seemingly unimportant to the purpose of this article, is incredibly important. Humanity entered a brand new era; according to Watt's belief, the eighteenth-century novel is the form that best exemplifies this anti-traditionalist and inventive mentality, which presents itself in a variety of ways, beginning with the way novels develop storylines and stories.
Previously, the plots of storytelling were mostly inspired by old myths and traditional tales and they were rarely considered unique: "the truth does not simply consist in referring to a consolidated tradition, but is the result of a free investigation carried out by each individual" (Watt, 2015). The plots in the eighteenth-century novel, on the other hand, are both original and created from scratch. The aforementioned phenomenon coincides with a shift in value that was placed on the concept of originality. Today, originality is viewed as a positive trait, which is largely due to a modern endeavour that began in the 18th century, during the Enlightenment period. During the Middle Ages the term "Original" meant "referring to the origins" (Watt, 2015). From the 18th century onwards the term adopts the meaning of new or unprecedented. Young was one of the intellectuals in England who valued originality and aesthetics; he wrote Conjectures on Original Composition in 1795, in which he employed the word in a new sense and theorised originality as an external value. This cultural climate that views uniqueness as a desirable value began to emerge at the turn of the century. The novel, and original plots conjured by its authors are an example of this. Writers tended to both reenact ancient legends and invent new myths that drew inspiration from daily lives of ordinary people. However, in the first half of the century, classicist threads coexisted, with Alexander Pope representing the most prominent example; the novel, on the other hand, provided the polar opposite by offering narratives that were not about heroes.
Contextualizing the Novel: Social and Historical Background
From the Glorious Revolution to the Industrial Revolution, the 17th and 18th centuries were a period of transition and transformation, marked by political upheaval, intellectual enlightenment, colonial expansion, and cultural innovation, which all paved the way for the birth of a novel and the modern world. In England, the 18th century began with the aftermath of the Glorious Revolution of 1688, triggered by the growing discontent with King James II of England, who was seen as a Catholic monarch with authoritarian tendencies. His policies and attempts to promote Catholicism in a predominantly Protestant country led to widespread opposition among the English political elite and the public. Faced with the prospect of armed opposition and lacking sufficient support, James II fled England in December 1688, effectively abdicating the throne. This paved the way for William D'Orange and Mary II to be declared joint sovereigns of England in 1689 (Saintsbury, 2005). The Glorious Revolution resulted in significant constitutional changes in England. The Bill of Rights of 1689, along with the Claim of Right in Scotland, established the principles of constitutional monarchy, limited the powers of the monarch, and affirmed the supremacy of Parliament.
The Glorious Revolution is often viewed as a turning point in English history, marking the triumph of parliamentary sovereignty over royal absolutism. It laid the foundation for the modern constitutional monarchy in England and influenced political developments in other countries, including the United States. Such an important event gave way to serious social changes by challenging traditional hierarchies and power structures. The increased emphasis on constitutional principles, individual rights, and the rule of law helped create a more egalitarian society where people had greater opportunities for social mobility and participation in public life. For the first time, ordinary people recognized that monarchic power could be challenged, and sovereigns who had previously been deemed untouchable were compelled to engage with the law. This realization served as a wake-up call to the populace, fostering a heightened awareness of their ability to resist aristocratic authority and advocate for their rights. This phenomenon was not confined to England but also manifested in France towards the end of the century, culminating in the French Revolution. The aristocracy, once considered inviolable, became targets of revolutionary fervour. Concurrently, an increasing number of organizations, including newspapers, emerged to disseminate information to the public. This period, known as the Enlightenment, marked a significant shift in societal dynamics and the dissemination of knowledge.
The Enlightenment was a significant intellectual and cultural movement that emerged in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. It emphasized the power of human reason and rational thinking as the primary sources of knowledge and authority. Influenced by the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries, which stressed empirical observation, experimentation, and reason to understand the natural world. Thinkers like Isaac Newton and Francis Bacon laid the groundwork for these ideas. They often challenged traditional religious beliefs and institutions, advocating for a more secular society based on reason and scientific inquiry, promoting religious tolerance, and criticizing religious dogma and superstition. Celebrating the dignity and autonomy of the individual, philosophers like John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau emphasized the importance of individual rights, freedom, and self-determination. These ideas had a profound impact on politics, economics, and society, with figures like Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau advocating for political reform, the separation of powers, freedom of speech, and the protection of individual rights. The movement was characterized by a commitment to education, literacy, and the dissemination of knowledge, with encyclopedias like Denis Diderot's "Encyclopédie" serving as important tools for spreading Enlightenment ideas and promoting intellectual inquiry. The legacy of this period laid the foundation for many modern democratic principles, human rights, and scientific advancements, with its emphasis on reason, individualism, and progress continuing to influence contemporary thought and society.
The Enlightenment and the rise of the novel in the 18th century are interconnected in several ways, reflecting the intellectual and cultural shifts of the time. Thinkers and scholars advocated for reason, individual rights, and scientific inquiry, ideas that resonated with the aspirations of the middle class. The emphasis on reason and empiricism appealed to the practical and entrepreneurial mindset of the middle class. The middle class, made up of artisans, merchants, and intellectuals, growing and asserting itself more and more; they also formed the ideal audience for the novel. The expanding number of people who wanted to read and study, alongside education awareness which spread throughout the continent, raised the need for school supplies and reading materials.
The Enlightenment's emphasis on individualism, self-expression, and the power of reason contributed to the development of the novel as a distinct literary genre. Novelists experimented with narrative techniques, character development, and storytelling conventions to create works that reflected the changing values and beliefs of this era.
The Features of the Novel
As already widely mentioned, the novel represented a unique genre that completely revolutionised the tradition of previous centuries. In the following paragraph, the important innovations and unique features of the 18th-century novel will be discussed starting from the genesis of the characters, arriving eventually to space, time and the style mostly employed by the writers. In the early development of the novel, the characters who populate these narratives are distinguished from one another starting with their names. For the first time in literature, characters are given proper names, a practice that was not systematically followed in previous literary traditions (Watt, 2015). This naming convention marks a significant departure from earlier works and signifies the individualization of characters within the narrative. Henry Fielding, for instance, uses names in his novels that encapsulate the personalities and traits of his characters. This technique allows readers to glean insights into a character’s disposition and role within the story merely through their name. Samuel Richardson employs a similar strategy in his works, where names are carefully chosen to reflect the inner qualities and moral standings of his characters. In contrast, Daniel Defoe’s "Robinson Crusoe" does not adhere to this convention. The naming of "Robinson Crusoe" does not carry the same weight in character designation, a distinction that will be further explored in subsequent articles. The variance in naming practices among these authors highlights different approaches to character development and thematic expression.
Characters of these early novels are not mere placeholders but embody different themes and values that were prevalent at the time. They reflect the social, economic, and cultural contexts of their respective narratives, providing a lens through which readers can explore the complexities of the human condition and societal norms. This intricate portrayal of characters marks a transformative moment in literary history, where the focus shifts towards a more nuanced and individualized representation of human experience.
The dimension of time undergoes a significant transformation in the early novel, where it becomes a crucial element in portraying real life and its temporal development. The relevance of time in the novel is intrinsically linked to the centrality of the individual, as the genre seeks to reflect the authentic progression of human experiences. This connection between the individual and time is fundamental to the concept of identity within the narrative framework. David Hume, an English empiricist, underscores this relationship by viewing the individual as a culmination of experiences over time. He suggests that memory is integral to our sense of self, asserting that if we lose our memory, we lose our identity. This philosophical perspective aligns closely with the novel's premise which assumes that each character is shaped by their lived experience.
The genre that most emphatically highlights the significance of time and individual development is the Bildungsroman. In these novels, the protagonist's growth and maturation are meticulously chronicled, demonstrating how personal development is inextricably tied to the passage of time. The Bildungsroman necessitates a precise representation of time to authentically depict the stages of the protagonist's journey from youth to adulthood. Therefore, time is not merely a backdrop in the novel but a dynamic force that shapes character identity and narrative structure. By accurately portraying the temporal progression of life, the novel provides a detailed and realistic exploration of human experiences, reinforcing the idea that individual identity is a product of one's temporal journey. This nuanced treatment of time underscores the novel’s role in capturing the essence of human existence through the lens of personal and temporal development.
In Daniel Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe," the author provides explicit spatial coordinates for the shipwreck, a groundbreaking detail for literary texts of that era. Prior to this, shipwrecks in literature, such as in Shakespeare's "The Tempest," occurred in undefined, often fantastical locations. This shift reflects a broader movement towards realism in literature, where precise descriptions of time and space become integral to the narrative. For classical tragedy, one of the fundamental principles is the unity of time, place, and action. The novel, particularly in the works of early 18th-century writers, promises to fulfil this principle. The underlying notion is that the truth of human existence can be comprehended within a framework of specific temporal and spatial dimensions. In "Robinson Crusoe," this truth is articulated within a clearly defined time and place, enhancing the realism and relatability of the narrative. The style of early 18th-century English novelists was significantly influenced by the scientific prose promoted by the scientists of the Royal Society (Watt, 2015). This period, marked by scientific innovations and the Enlightenment, called for a new type of language that prioritized clarity and precision. The language used in novels had to be clear, simple, and focused on the referential function, making it as transparent as possible. This style aimed to describe phenomena in the most comprehensible manner, akin to scientific writing, ensuring that readers, who did not have the opportunity to clarify misunderstandings with the author, could fully grasp the text.
Consequently, early 18th-century novelists favoured the referential function of language, leading to a scarcity of metaphors, which later flourished during the Romantic period. The emphasis was on the writer's ability to convey information clearly and manipulate language effectively to maintain the reader's attention on the narrative. This stylistic approach allowed for a straightforward depiction of characters, settings, and events, aligning with the novel’s goal to represent real life and its temporal and spatial dimensions accurately. These innovations underscore the novel's commitment to realism and the accurate portrayal of human experience, grounded in the specifics of time and space. This approach not only enhances the authenticity of the narrative but also reflects the Enlightenment’s influence on literature, promoting a clear, precise, and referential use of language.
Conclusions
The novel remains one of the most widespread and appreciated literary genres today, valued not only for its originality but also for its adaptability to diverse reader preferences. Its rich and complex history dates back several centuries, coinciding with the Enlightenment and the visionary thinkers of the 18th century. This period marked a departure from previous literary traditions, allowing characters to live and self-determine independently of established norms. Consequently, the novel emerged as a significant form of literature, representing the burgeoning bourgeois class that was increasingly influential in the market and social life of 18th-century Europe, particularly in England. In examining the origins of the English novel, it is crucial to consider the narrative text's characteristics, which highlight how this new genre represented a significant departure from preceding ones. Ian Watt's concept of formal realism is pivotal in understanding the novel's development. Realist literature presents stories about ordinary individuals in their daily lives, emphasizing empirical observation and individual experience, influenced by philosophical shifts in the 17th century. Empiricism, as articulated by Locke, and Descartes' emphasis on clear and distinct ideas, both rejected traditionalism, advocating for knowledge as a process concerning the individual. This cultural shift towards originality coincided with the rise of the middle class, whose increasing influence in the market and social life of 18th-century Europe, particularly in England, was reflected in the novel's themes and characters. The novel's ability to represent reality and daily life, coupled with its flexible narrative structures, made it the literature of the burgeoning bourgeois class. As a result, the novel not only carved out a niche in the literary world of the time but also laid the foundation for modern democratic principles, human rights, and scientific advancements, with its emphasis on reason, individualism, and progress continuing to influence contemporary thought and society.
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