The Green Belts of England
"Let us go forward in this fight in the spirit of William Blake ... Till we have built Jerusalem in England's green and pleasant land." - Clement Richard Attlee, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951, at the Labour Party Conference, Scarborough, in October 1951.
The Town and Country Planning Act 1947 of Clement Attlee’s post-war Labour government (1945–51) introduced Green Belts nationally—designated rural areas surrounding towns and cities—which have become part of English cultural identity. As of March 2023, Green Belts cover 12.6% of the country’s land area (DLUHC, 2023). These social assets are urban England’s "countryside next door" (CPRE, 2022) to be protected and respected. However, their environmental value as the "green lungs" of 16 urban cores, improving their health, well-being, and air quality, will need to be modified as extreme weather events—such as flooding, drought, and heat waves—become more frequent and destructive because of climate change (Kirby & Scott, 2023).
A prolonged housing crisis in England threatens the openness of these pristine areas as the demand for new-build developments increases to ease social housing waiting lists and to remedy the shortage of affordable rental and owned properties (Cheshire, 2014, quoted in Hilber & Schöni, 2016, p.307; Goode, 2022). Today, 65% of England’s Green Belt is used for agriculture, retaining its role in preserving much-needed farmland after the Second World War (Brueckner et al., 2001, p.65, quoted in Koster, 2024, p.363). However, the widespread destruction of urban areas from aerial bombardment required land use to be carefully planned to achieve the regeneration of agriculture and housing.
After six years of conflict (1939–1945), a Labour government, winning by a landslide in July 1945, tentatively began to create poet William Blake’s idyllic "green and pleasant land" out of a war-scarred Britain. Although defeated in the 1951 general election, the Green Belts became one of Labour’s celebrated achievements and a tenet of the country’s political and social post-war consensus between the two major parties (Rudel, 2019). Even with the sea-change election of Margaret Thatcher in May 1979, the status of Green Belts remained unchanged as her "property-owning democracy" ideology, including the drive for home ownership, transformed the country. The statutory Metropolitan Belt around London, established by a 1938 Act, expanded during her tenure (Bishop et al., 2020), and England’s Green Belt area more than doubled.
Figure 1: The New Jerusalem of post-war Britain was the blueprint of Clement Richard Attlee (1883-1967), Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1945 to 1951) and Leader of the Labour Party (1935 to 1955) (Unknown, c.1945).
1947: A Year in Two Acts
The impact of the Second World War on the British homefront transformed society. The "total war" changed economic and political attitudes and exposed longstanding social problems—namely the infamous “five giants” identified by the seminal 1942 Beveridge Report (Beveridge, 1942, p.6)—that needed to be remedied. In their 1945 election campaign, Labour unashamedly campaigned as “a socialist party, and proud of it” (Labour Party of Great Britain, 1945) on a social reform platform which reflected the community spirit displayed during the war and the strong desire for political change (Fielding, 1992). Indeed, the left-wing wartime BBC broadcaster J.B. Priestley (1894–1984) remarked on this cohesion many years later: “The British were absolutely at their best in the Second World War. They were never as good, certainly in my lifetime, before it” (Calder, 1974).
The wartime "Dig for Victory" campaign, launched in October 1939 when available green spaces were adapted into plots for amateur arable and livestock farming, might typify the community spirit of the period (Mackay, 2002; Hawkey, 2023), but it could not conceal the necessity of accessible, well-maintained land to produce sufficient food for the island nation. The Agriculture Act 1947 was a reaction to the deprivation and rationing during the global conflict and sought to develop a sustainable farming industry in England for future food security and self-sufficiency (Lang & Schoen, 2016, quoted in Waugh, 2024). A regenerated agricultural sector was therefore supported by comprehensive land legislation. During the first Attlee administration (1945–50), the Hill Farming Act 1946 and National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 demonstrated Labour’s commitment to social reform of the land by making it sustainable, a source of employment, and protected from private development.
Land nationalisation had been a major commitment of the Labour Party since the end of the equally destructive First World War in 1918 (Waschke, 1977). Although reaffirmed in their 1945 election manifesto (Labour Party of Great Britain, 1945), albeit to be achieved by a less radical, gradual process, post-war social and economic concerns to "win the peace" took precedence (yet, Fielding (1992, p.634) reports a 1944–45 poll found 51% wished to see the land nationalised). While England’s rural and urban land was not brought under public ownership by the party (Tichelar, 2003), it was still recognised as a social asset by the Town and Country Planning Act 1947. This legislation balanced private and public interests by establishing a national planning framework for local authorities to scrutinise and approve land development proposals for the “common good” (FitzGerald, 1948, p.428).
The country needed to be rebuilt; towns and cities in England had been bombed since 1940, destroying millions of properties. In London alone, 1.5 million civilians, out of an estimated population of 8 million (1939 census), were homeless by 1945 (Porter, 1995, p.342). Housing became the crucial issue of the electorate (Fielding, 1992, 635), magnified by building materials and labour shortages. The New Towns Act 1946 gave the government and not private interests the power to acquire land for large-scale new town projects. Land ownership was to be democratic, with Development Corporations—formed to manage the land and infrastructure—held accountable to local and central governments (Rivera, 2015).
Figure 2: A July 1945 Picture Post magazine stressed the need for a post-war housing plan. In 1943, it was estimated that between 3 and 4 million houses would need to be built after the war - but where? (Picture Post, 1945).
With a nation living in bomb-damaged urban areas and coping with food shortages (rationing ended completely in 1954), it was necessary to protect valuable land from rushed post-war rebuilding projects and the unchecked schemes of private landowners (Garner, 1957; Pooley, 1960). Labour’s Town and Country Planning Act 1947, which came into effect on 1 July 1948, was a landmark piece of legislation in urban planning “worthy of celebration” (Hourihan, 2000) and “much to admire” (Blacksell et al., 1987). Government regulation of the land would enforce the historical objective of urban containment (Corkindale, 2000; Mace, 2017), i.e. restrict urban growth, rather than halt the oft-repeated uncontrolled sprawl. This aimed to prevent a landscape blighted by the “unplanned society” (Hill, 1980, p.150) of the developments constructed in the ineffective and fragmented pre-war planning systems (FitzGerald, 1948; Amati & Yokohari, 2007).
While the Town and Country Planning Act 1947 gave Green Belt land the role of an optional natural boundary against urban growth, the concept had been notably introduced by the Green Belt (London and Home Counties) Act 1938, which granted London authorities the right to purchase land for preservation (Amati & Yokohari, 2007). The 1947 Act strengthened local government's planning and ownership powers by curbing the excesses of private interests, identified as “economic do-as-they-please anarchy” in the 1945 manifesto (Labour Party of Great Britain, 1945). It handed experts and elected officials the decision to designate land as a Green Belt in development proposals for the benefit of all (Clifford & Morphet, 2023). Public scrutiny of planning procedures and decisions was later given by the Town and Country Planning Act 1968, supported by the 1969 report of the Skeffington Committee, when the 300-page, expert-led 1947 Act was considered “outdated, and procedures for their review were cumbersome” (Moore, 1972, p.89).
However, despite criticisms, the 1947 Act laid the foundations of modern planning and green belts in England by depriving the “liberty of an owner to develop and use his land as he thinks fit,” as noted by the lawyer and town planning expert Sir Desmond Heap (Heap, 1987, p.12, quoted in Seneviratne, 1990, p.272).
It was in 1955, though, when Duncan Sandys, the Conservative government’s Minister of Housing and Local Government, introduced the famous Circular 42/55 (MHLG, 1955), which officially recognised the environmental and social benefits of Green Belt land (Collins, 1957; Mace, 2018). Local authorities across the country were now actively encouraged to formally designate Green Belts as a measure of containment to prevent the creation of non-descript metropolises outside the capital from destroying the rural landscape (Toft, 1995, p.55). The original Metropolitan Belt surrounding London continued to grow and today, at 5,085 km², is three times the area of Greater London (Rankl et al., 2023). Since 1955, Green Belts have been established in England on the edges of 16 urban cores, with the capital’s ring being the biggest. As of March 2023, Green Belts cover 1,637,560 hectares—roughly 12.6% of England’s land (DLUHC, 2023).
Figure 3: A wartime propaganda poster by the Yorkshire artist Frank Newbould (1887-1951). An example of an idealised rural Britain to inspire national pride (Newbould, 1942).
A “Grey” and Pleasant Land?
The Green Belts have succeeded in curbing the spread of urbanisation (Cohen, 1994; Amati & Yokohari, 2006), notably in controlling the size of London (Mace, 2018; Xie et al., 2020), and in doing so, have maintained their purpose created by the Town and Country Planning Act 1947 and subsequent urban planning legislation. Within the United Kingdom, England’s population is growing the fastest (Office for National Statistics, 2024), and critics believe the restrictive planning of Green Belts has exacerbated the ongoing housing crisis by increasing the scarcity and cost of new-build homes (Cheshire, 2014; Koster, 2023). Further criticism accuses Green Belts protection from development of leading to rising prices throughout the housing market (Hilber & Vermeulen, 2016, quoted in Koster & Zabihidan, 2018).
Since the Conservative’s "Right to Buy" scheme of council houses during the 1980s, which saw 1.5 million properties sold by the end of the decade (Malpass & Murie, 1990, quoted in Farrall et al., 2016), a housing crisis in England has prevented low-wage earners from entering the property market either as renters or buyers. For forty-five years, the lack of affordable housing has exposed the country’s class, income, and social inequalities (Anderson, 2004, quoted in McCall & Monney, 2017, p.638), which, at the beginning of 2025, after 14 years of Conservative government austerity measures (2010–2024) and the unprecedented consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic, have caused the housing crisis to reach boiling point.
There are multiple environmental, economic, and social expectations for the future role of Green Belts, including alleviating housing shortages, mitigating climate change (Kirby & Scott, 2023), and easing transportation (Goode, 2023). Local authorities can release limited Green Belt as part of their Local Plans guiding planning applications (Glenigan & CPRA, 2019), and a noticeable loss of land has been recorded in recent years for new developments (DLUHC, 2022; DLUHC, 2023). Yet, there are enough brownfield sites—former inner-city industrial land—that would provide space for up to 1.2 million homes (CPRE, 2022). This redevelopment policy of brownfield sites was pushed by the Conservative government in 1995 to tackle the housing shortage in an “environmentally sustainable way” (DOE, 1995, quoted in Adams & De Sousa, 2007). By 2008, housing built on brownfields peaked at 114,202 units (Burroughs, 2015). This priority was revived in 2024 when the government announced financial backing, as part of a "brownfield presumption" reform, to encourage local authorities to build on brownfields instead of the Green Belt.
Figure 4: Duncan Sandys, photographed in October 1975, the government minister whose 1955 Circular 42/55 expanded Green Belts in England (Dutch National Archives/National Archief, 1975).
In response to the severity of the housing crisis, Sir Keir Starmer, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (2024–), has proposed increasing development on the Grey Belt: agriculturally and structurally underdeveloped areas of the Green Belt (MHCLG, 2024). This proposal should not be confused with the 7% of England's Green Belt that is developed with transportation links (3.7%) and housing (0.3%) (Rankl et al., 2023). The development of the Green Belt’s Grey Belt, which is roughly 3%, has been met with opposition as this land may serve as an urban safeguarding, preventative, preservation, or regeneration purpose outlined in the UK government’s land-use National Planning Policy Framework (NFPP) first published in 2012 (Guler, 2024). Without proper investigation and research, construction on the Grey Belt's "scrublands" could jeopardise a natural climate solution for urban centres (CPRE, 2023) or destroy already threatened wildlife which has decreased in the United Kingdom by 19% since the 1970s (Hayhow et al., 2019, quoted in Waugh, 2024).
The severe housing shortage risks the future of the Green Belts as natural urban boundaries. They will continue to be a major issue for local governments seeking quick solutions to provide affordable properties, despite successive national governments since 1945 expressing their commitment to protecting the Green Belts as an open space for people and nature. Furthermore, as England's population grows, climate change intensifies, and environmental degradation continues, this invaluable asset will also be expected to "deliver multiple land-use objectives" (Kirby et al., 2025). Even with sufficient brownfield sites identified as recently as November 2022 to build over a million homes, the political and societal pressures on Green Belts have never been greater - but completely unnecessary.
Bibliographical references
Adams, D. & De Sousa, C. (2007). Brownfield Development: A Comparison of North American and British Approaches. Paper presented at the European Urban Research Association Conference ‘The Vital City’, Glasgow, Scotland. Retrieved from https://www.gla.ac.uk/media/Media_47883_smxx.pdf
Amati, M. & Yokohari, M. (2007). The establishment of the London Greenbelt: Reaching consensus over purchasing land. Journal of Planning History, 6(4), 311-337. DOI: 10.1177/1538513207302695
Anderson, I. (2004). Housing, homelessness and the welfare state in the UK. International Journal of Housing Policy, 4(3), 369-38.
Beveridge, W.H. (1942). Social Insurance and Allied Services. Report by Sir William Beveridge (Cmd.6404). London: H.M. Stationery Office.
Blacksell, M., Blowers, A., & Shaw, T. (1987). Editorial: Celebration or wake? 40 years of British town and country planning. Planning Outlook, 30(1), 1-3. https://doi.org/10.1080/00320718708711784
Brueckner, J.K., Mills, E., & Kremer, M. (2001). Urban sprawl: Lessons from urban economics [with Comments]. Brookings-Wharton Papers on Urban Affairs, 65-97. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25058783
Burroughs, L. (2015, March). Better Brownfield: Ensuring Responsive Development on Previously Developed Land (Foresight Paper No.3). Charity for the Preservation of Rural England (CPRE) & Housing Foresight. Retrieved from https://www.cpre.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Better_Brownfield_web.pdf
Calder, A. (Writer) & Elstein, D. (Director). (1974, February 13). Home Fires: Britain (1940-1944) [Television series episode]. In Isaacs, J. (Producer). The World at War. Thames Television.
Cheshire, P. (2014). Turning houses into gold: The failure of British planning. CentrePiece, 19(1), 14-18.
Clifford, B. & Morphet, J. (2023). Major Infrastructure Planning Delivery: Exploring Nationally Significant Infrastructure Projects (NSIPs) in England and Wales. London: UCL Press, University College London.
Cohen, S. (1994). Greenbelts in London and Jerusalem. Geographical Review, 81(1), 74-89. https://www.jstor.org/stable/215782
Collins, B.J. (1957). A talk on Green Belts. Town Planning Review, 27(4), 291-230. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40102230
Corkindale, J. (2000). Fifty Years of the Town and Country Planning Acts Time to Privatise Land Development Rights? (IEA Studies on the Environment No.11). Retrieved from http://www.iea.org.uk/sites/default/files/publications/files/upldbook383pdf.pdf
CPRE. (2022, May). The Countryside Next Door: Why We Need to Invest in Greener, Healthier Green Belts. London: Charity for the Preservation of Rural England (CPRE). Retrieved from https://www.cpre.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/CPRE_Countryside_Next_Door.pdf
CPRE. (2022, November). State of Brownfield 2022. London: Charity for the Preservation of Rural England (CPRE). Retrieved from https://www.cpre.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/State-of-Brownfield-2022-FINAL-FORMATTED-15-12-2022.pdf
CPRE. (2023, November). The Real ‘Grey Belt’: Finding Space to Build in London and Beyond. London: Charity for the Preservation of Rural England (CPRE). Retrieved from https://www.cprelondon.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/2023/11/The-real-grey-belt.pdf
Department for Levelling Up, Housing & Communities (DLUHC). (2022, September 16). Local Authority Green Belt: England 2021-22 - Statistical Release. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/local-authority-green-belt-statistics-for-england-2021-to-2022/local-authority-green-belt-england-2021-22-statistical-release
Department for Levelling Up, Housing & Communities (DLUHC). (2023, October 12). Local Authority Green Belt: England 2022-23 - Statistical Release. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/local-authority-green-belt-statistics-for-england-2022-to-2023/local-authority-green-belt-england-2022-23-statistical-release
Department of the Environment (DOE). (1995). Our Future Homes: Opportunities, Choice, Responsibility (Cm 2901). London: HMSO.
Farrall, S., Hay, C., Jennings, W., & Gray, E. (2016). Thatcherite ideology, housing tenure and crime: The socio-spatial consequences of the right to buy for domestic property crime. The British Journal of Criminology, 56(6), 1235-1252. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44074919
Fielding, S. (1992). What did “the people” want?: The meaning of the 1945 General Election. The Historical Journal, 35(3), 623-639. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2639633
FitzGerald, R.C. (1948). Planning and development under the Town and Country Planning Act, 1947. The Modern Law Review, 11(4), 401–428. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1090267
Garner, J.F. (1957). Some aspects of planning law in England. The University of Toronto Law Journal, 12(1), 49-66. https://doi.org/10.2307/824399
Glenigan & CPRA. (2019, July). Reclassification and Development of Greenbelt Land. Retrieved from https://www.cpre.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Glenigan_report_-_Reclassification_and_Development_of_Greenbelt_Land_002.pdf
Goode, C. (2022). Planning principles and particular places: Planners’ and campaigners’ perspectives on motivations for popular support of the green belt. Town Planning Review, 93(3). https://doi.org/10.3828/tpr.2021.37
Goode, C.E. (2023). TOD in regional urban growth boundaries (UGBs): A case of transit adjacent development or a strategic housing solution? Journal of Transport Geography, 113, 103714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2023.103714
Guler, N.I. (2024, August 1). Grey Belt Demystified: From Green to Grey. Urbanist Architecture. Retrieved from https://urbanistarchitecture.co.uk/grey-belt/
Hawkey, K. (2023). Humanity’s relationship with nature: Examples from history. In History and the Climate Crisis: Environmental history in the classroom (pp.51–76). UCL Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.4329862.10
Hayhow, D.B., Eaton, M.A., Stanbury, A.J., Burns, F., Kirby, W.B., Bailey, N., Beckmann, B., Bedford, J., Boersch-Supan, P.H., Coomber, F., Dennis, E.B., Dolman, S.J., Dunn, E., Hall, J., Harrower, C., Hatfield, J.H., Hawley, J., Haysom, K., Hughes, J., Johns, D.G., Mathews, F., McQuatters-Gollop, A., Noble, D.G., Outhwaite, C.L., Pearce-Higgins, J.W., Pescott, O.L., Powney, G.D., & Symes, N. (2019). The State of Nature 2019. The State of Nature partnership.
Heap, D. (1987). An Outline of Planning Law (9th ed.). London: Sweet & Maxwell.
Hilber, C.A.L. & Schöni, O. (2016). Housing policies in the United Kingdom, Switzerland, and the United States: Lessons learned. Cityscape, 18(3), 291-332. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26328289
Hilber, C.A.L. & Vermeulen, W. (2016). The impact of supply constraints on house prices in England. Economic Journal, 126(591), 358-405.
Hill, D.M. (1980). Values and judgments: The case of planning in England since 1947. International Political Science Review/Revue Internationale de Science Politique, 1(2), 149-167. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1600990
Hourihan, K. (2000). Urban planning in the twentieth century [Review of For the City as a Whole: Planning, Politics, and the Public Interest in Dallas, Texas, 1900-1965; Urban Structure-Halifax: An Urban Design Approach; Rationality and Power: Democracy in Practice; Planning Beyond 2000, by R. B. Fairbanks, B. A. Sandalack, A. Nicolai, B. Flyvbjerg, P. Allmendinger, & M. Chapman]. Urban History, 27(3), 384–396. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44613174
Jenkin, T.P. (1952). The British General Election of 1951. The Western Political Quarterly, 5(1), 51-65. https://doi.org/10.2307/442551
Kirby, M.G. & Scott, A.J. (2023). Multifunctional Green Belts: A planning policy assessment of Green Belts wider functions in England. Land Use Policy, 132, 106799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2023.106799
Kirby, M.G., Scott, A.J., & Walsh, C.L. (2025, March). A greener Green Belt? Co-developing exploratory scenarios for contentious peri-urban landscapes. Landscape and Urban Planning, 255, 105268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2024.105268
Koster, H.R.A. & Zabihidan, M.S. (2018, August 1). The Welfare Effects of Greenbelt Policy: Evidence from England (Tinbergen Institute Discussion Paper 2019-023/VIII). Retrieved from https://ssrn.com/abstract=3358806
Koster, H.R.A. (2023). The welfare effects of greenbelt policy: Evidence from England. The Economic Journal, 134, 363–401. https://doi.org/10.1093/ej/uead077
Labour Party of Great Britain. (1945). Let Us Face the Future: A Declaration of Labour Policy for the Consideration of the Nation. London.
Lang, T. & Schoen, V. (2016, March 8). Food, the UK and the EU: Brexit or Bremain? (Food Research Collaboration Policy Brief). Retrieved from https://openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/14896/1/FRC%20Brexit%2007%2003%2016.pdf
Mace, A. (2018). The metropolitan green belt – changing an institution. Progress in Planning, 121, 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progress.2017.01.001
Mace, A., Blanc, F., Gordon, I., & Scanlon, K. (2016). A 21st Century Metropolitan Green Belt (LSE Knowledge Exchange HEIF 5). Retrieved from https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/68012/1/Gordon_Green_Belt_author.pdf
MacKay, R. (2002). Half the Battle: Civilian Morale in Britain during the Second World War. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press. Retrived from https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/35048/341341.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
Malpass, P. & Murie, A. (1990). Housing Policy and Practice (3rd ed.). MacMillan.
McCall, V. & Mooney, G. (2017). The repoliticization of high-rise social housing in the UK and the classed politics of demolition. Built Environment (1978-), 43(4), 637-652. http://www.jstor.org/stable/45173799
Ministry of Housing, Communities & Local Government (MHCLG). (2023, December). National Planning Policy Framework. Retrieved from https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/669a25e9a3c2a28abb50d2b4/NPPF_December_2023.pdf
Ministry of Housing, Communities & Local Government (MHCLG). (2024, September 24). Proposed Reforms to the National Planning Policy Framework and Other Changes to the Planning System. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/proposed-reforms-to-the-national-planning-policy-framework-and-other-changes-to-the-planning-system/proposed-reforms-to-the-national-planning-policy-framework-and-other-changes-to-the-planning-system
Ministry of Housing & Local Government (MHLG). (1955, August 3). Green Belts: Circular 42/55. Retrieved from https://londongreenbeltcouncil.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/1955-Circular.pdf
Moore, V. (1972). Planning in Britain: The changing scene. The Urban Law Annual, 1, 89-102. Retrieved from https://journals.library.wustl.edu/urbanlaw/article/8015/galley/24848/view/
Office for National Statistics. (2024, October 8). Population Estimates for the UK, England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland: Mid-2023. Retrieved from https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/bulletins/annualmidyearpopulationestimates/mid2023
Pooley, B.J. (1960). The Evolution of British Planning Legislation The Evolution of British Planning Legislation. Michigan Legal Publications. Retrieved from https://repository.law.umich.edu/michigan_legal_studies/36
Porter, R. (1995). London: A Social History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Rankl, F. (2023, February 6). Brownfield Development and Protecting the Green Belt (Research Briefing). UK Parliament. Retrieved from https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cdp-2023-0035/
Rankl, F., Barton, C., & Carthew, H. (2023, December). Green Belt (Commons Library Research Briefing 00934). Retrieved from https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/SN00934/SN00934.pdf
Rivera, H. (2015). Political Ideology and Housing Supply: Rethinking New Towns and the Building of New Communities in England (published PhD thesis). University College London (UCL). Retrieved from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/29411592.pdf
Rudel, T.K. (2019). England: Green Belts After World War II. In Shocks, States, and Sustainability: The Origins of Radical Environmental Reforms (pp.68-90). Oxford University Press.
Seneviratne, W.M. (1990). Complaints Procedures in Local Government (published PhD thesis). University of Sheffield. Retrieved from https://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/1883/1/DX187793.pdf
de Smith, S.A. (1948). Town and Country Planning Act, 1947. The Modern Law Review, 11(1), 72–81. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1090090
Tichelar, M. (2003). The Labour Party, agricultural policy and the retreat from rural land nationalisation during the Second World War. The Agricultural History Review, 51(2), 209-225. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40275970
Toft, D. (1995). Green belt and the urban fringe. Built Environment (1978-), 21(1), 54–59. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23287715
Waschke, H. (1977). The development and impact of nationalisation in Britain. Intereconomics, 12(5/6), 153-157. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02928713
Waugh, E. (2024, October 20). The Impact of Climate Change on British Farming. Retrieved from https://www.byarcadia.org/post/food-for-thought-adapting-british-farming-to-climate-change
Xie, X., Kang, H., Behnisch, M., Baildon, M., & Krüger, T. (2020). To what extent can the Green Belts prevent urban sprawl? - A comparative study of Frankfurt am Main, London and Seoul. Sustainability, 12(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/su12020679
Comments