The History of the English Language Series: Middle English
Foreword
Looking at the past is an important step toward understanding the future. To comprehend English in the 21st century, one must examine its historical journey and the factors shaping its current state and usage. This series delves into the socio-historical background of the English language and explores how its evolution has responded to the changing communicative needs of its speakers across centuries. Providing a comprehensive overview, the series traces the historical trajectory into Old English (OE), Middle English (ME), Early Modern English (EModE), Modern English (ModE), and Present-Day English (PDE). Today, English is the world language par excellence. To understand why, one must delve into its roots, examining its state 1500 years ago, tracking grammar shifts, exploring vocabulary expansion, and investigating the factors that have made English a global lingua franca. In examining the past to illuminate the present, this series unveils the cultural landscape influencing present-day English and the literature composed over centuries, providing a basis for thoughtful hypotheses on what the future might hold in store.
This series is divided into six articles including:
The History of the English Language Series: Historical Linguistics and Language History
The History of the English Language Series: Middle English
The History of the English Language Series: Early Modern English
The History of the English Language Series: Modern English
The History of the English Language Series: Present-Day English
The History of the English Language Series: Middle English
Periodisation:
Middle English 1100-1500
Historical Notes on the Period
The Norman Invasion and its Immediate Consequences
The year 1066 marks a watershed moment in English history with the Norman Invasion (Burrow & Turville-Petre, 1992). This pivotal event resulted not only in a shift of power but also in profound cultural and linguistic transformations. William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, defeated King Harold II at the Battle of Hastings. The Norman invasion introduced Norman French as the language of the court, law, and administration, while Latin remained the language of the Church and scholarship. This trilingual environment significantly influenced the development of the English language (Kemmer, 2005).
Following the Battle of Hastings, William's establishment of control was brutal, quelling uprisings by Anglo-Saxon earls and peasants, and redistributing land to Norman supporters (Burrow & Turville-Petre, 1992). The native Anglo-Saxon nobility was systematically stripped of their lands and titles, many being enslaved or executed, and their properties were redistributed to William's Norman supporters. The king granted land to his loyal followers, who, in turn, provided military service and support. This hierarchical system ensured the king's control over the country and established a clear social order. This redistribution established a new Norman aristocracy, whose influence would permeate every aspect of English life (Langlotz, 2008).
The Bayeux Tapestry: A Historical Record
The Bayeux Tapestry is an invaluable artefact that provides a detailed visual account of the events leading up to the Norman Conquest of England (Burrow & Turville-Petre, 1992). This embroidered cloth, measuring approximately 50 cm by 70 metres, depicts the story of the Norman invasion and the Battle of Hastings. Commissioned by Odo, Bishop of Bayeux and William the Conqueror's half-brother, the tapestry is believed to have been produced by skilled Anglo-Saxon embroidered in England. The tapestry begins with the death of King Edward the Confessor in January 1066 and the subsequent claim to the throne by Harold Godwinson. It depicts Harold's oath to support William's claim, his coronation as King of England, and the ominous appearance of Halley's Comet. The climax of the tapestry is the Battle of Hastings, where Harold is killed, and William emerges victorious, paving the way for Norman rule.
The Bayeux Tapestry provides valuable insights into the linguistic and cultural changes brought about by the Norman Conquest. The text of the tapestry is written in Latin, the language of the Church and of scholarship. However, it also includes many Norman and Anglo-Saxon elements, reflecting the complex interplay of languages and cultures during this period. The tapestry depicts various aspects of Norman and Anglo-Saxon life, including clothing, weaponry, and architectural styles. It illustrates the fusion of Norman and Anglo-Saxon traditions, which would shape the development of English society and culture for centuries to come.
Two Waves of French Influence
The Norman Conquest introduced two distinct waves of French influence on the English language. The first wave, immediately following the conquest, brought Norman French, the language of the conquerors, into widespread use in England (Wogan-Browne et al., 2009). This wave of influence primarily affected the vocabulary related to governance, law, art, literature, and military matters. The second wave of French influence occurred after 1204, following the loss of the Duchy of Normandy to the French crown. This later influence introduced Central French, which further enriched the English vocabulary and brought a more refined and literary quality to the language. During this period, many French loanwords were incorporated into English, particularly in the domains of fashion, cuisine, and culture (Ingham, 2012).
The Domesday Book and the Feudal System
The Domesday Book, compiled in 1086, reflected this redistribution and served as a comprehensive record of landholding in England. The old Anglo-Saxon nobility was largely supplanted by Norman lords, significantly altering the social and linguistic landscape. The Domesday Book, as an extensive survey of England's lands and resources, was instrumental in consolidating William's control over his new kingdom. It recorded landholdings, resources, and the population, providing a clear picture of the wealth and resources available to the crown. The Domesday Book is a crucial source for understanding the feudal system imposed by the Normans, which organised society into a hierarchy of lords and vassals (Locher & Leimgruber, 2020).
The Growth of London and Architectural Changes
Under Norman rule, London became increasingly important as a commercial and administrative centre (Ingham, 2012). The Norman influence is still visible in England's architectural heritage, as the Normans also initiated extensive building projects, including the construction of castles and cathedrals, which served both defensive and symbolic purposes (Ingham, 2012). The construction of new buildings introduced Romanesque architectural styles, characterised by thick walls, round arches, and massive structures. Notable examples include the Tower of London and numerous Romanesque churches and abbeys, which reflect the architectural style brought over by the Normans. These constructions were not only physical manifestations of Norman power but also helped to cement their cultural and religious influence. The cultural legacy of the Normans also extended to art, literature, and cuisine. The blending of Norman and Anglo-Saxon traditions created a rich and diverse cultural tapestry, which laid the foundations for the development of a unique English identity (Langlotz, 2008).
The Legal System and Ecclesiastical Influence
The Norman Conquest also brought significant changes to the legal system. Norman French became the language of the courts, and many legal terms from this period remain in use today. The introduction of the jury system and other legal reforms helped to modernise English law and administration (Ingham, 2012).
The Normans also had a profound impact on the English church and education (Ingham, 2012). Key ecclesiastical positions were filled by Normans, and the church's educational institutions played a crucial role in preserving and transmitting the new language and cultural norms. The Normans also established and endowed monasteries, which became centres of learning and scholarship. These institutions preserved and transmitted the new language and cultural norms, ensuring their lasting influence (Burrow & Turville-Petre, 1992).
The Influence of Norman French
The impact of Norman French on the English language was profound and long-lasting. It is estimated that approximately 30% of modern English vocabulary is of Romance origin, largely due to the influence of Norman French. This influence is particularly evident in areas such as law, administration, art, literature, and cuisine (Ingham, 2012).
Norman French had been the first language of the Norman conquerors, and it continued to be the language of the aristocracy and royalty throughout the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries. Over time, however, English began to reassert itself as the dominant language. By the late fourteenth century, English had become the mother tongue of the English aristocracy, and it was increasingly used in literature, law, and administration (Wogan-Browne et al., 2009).
The Loss of Inflections and Changes in Syntax
The influence of Norman French also contributed to significant changes in the structure of the English language. One of the most notable changes was the loss of inflexions, which simplified English grammar. Old English had a complex system of inflexions to indicate case, number, and gender. However, many of these inflexions were gradually lost, leading to a more analytic language structure.
This simplification was accompanied by changes in syntax. The importance of word order and the use of prepositions increased, similar to the syntactic changes occurring in French at the time. These changes made English more flexible and adaptable, facilitating its evolution into a global language.
The Magna Carta and the Barons' War
The signing of the Magna Carta in 1215 was a landmark event in English history. This document, forced upon King John by his barons, established the principle that the king was subject to the law and guaranteed certain rights to the nobility. The Magna Carta was written in Latin, but its principles were soon translated into English and French, reflecting the trilingual nature of medieval English society. The Barons' War (1264-1267), a series of conflicts between the barons and King Henry III, further highlighted the linguistic and cultural tensions within English society. The use of English in legal and administrative contexts began to increase during this period, as the barons sought to assert their rights and privileges.
The Hundred Years' War and the Wars of the Roses
The centuries following the Norman Conquest saw a gradual reassertion of the English language. By 1400, English had begun to triumph over French, a shift influenced by several factors, including the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) and the Wars of the Roses (1453-1487). These conflicts fostered a sense of national identity and unity, with the English language serving as a symbol of that identity.
The Hundred Years' War, fought between England and France, was particularly significant. The prolonged conflict engendered a sense of enmity towards the French, which, in turn, diminished the prestige of the French language among the English populace (Locher & Leimgruber, 2020). English increasingly became the language of administration and law, culminating in the Statute of Pleading in 1362, which made English the official language of the courts (Locher & Leimgruber, 2020).
The Wars of the Roses (1455-1487) were a series of dynastic conflicts between the houses of Lancaster and York. These wars had a significant impact on the English language, as the struggle for power fostered a sense of national identity and unity. The eventual victory of Henry Tudor (Henry VII) and the establishment of the Tudor dynasty marked the beginning of a new era in English history. The Tudor period saw the continued rise of English as the dominant language of administration, law, and literature. The works of writers such as Sir Thomas More, Edmund Spenser, and William Shakespeare further enhanced the status of the English language and showcased its versatility and richness.
The Black Death and Socioeconomic Changes
The Black Death, which struck England in 1348-1350, had a profound impact on English society and the English language. The pandemic decimated the population, leading to a severe shortage of labour and higher wages for workers. The resulting social and economic upheaval accelerated the decline of the feudal system and contributed to the rise of a rural gentry and a burgeoning middle class. These socioeconomic changes facilitated the spread of literacy and 'language awareness,' contributing to the evolution of Middle English. The use of English in education, administration, and literature increased, reflecting the growing influence of the middle class and the declining dominance of the aristocracy.
Literary Production and the Widening of Literacy
The period also witnessed a remarkable flourishing of English literature. Geoffrey Chaucer, often regarded as the father of English literature, played a pivotal role in the development of Middle English literature. His most famous work, The Canterbury Tales, written in the late 14th century, is a collection of stories told by a diverse group of pilgrims on their way to the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket in Canterbury. It stands as a monumental work of Middle English literature, showcasing the richness and versatility of the English language, incorporating a wide range of vocabulary and literary styles. Chaucer's use of English, rather than Latin or French, in such a significant literary work was both a reflection of and a catalyst for the growing prestige of the English language. His works contributed to the standardisation of English spelling and grammar and helped to elevate the status of English as a literary language (Wogan-Browne et al., 2009).
The Influence of French and Italian Literature
Middle English literature was deeply influenced by French and Italian literary traditions. Many literary genres and forms, such as the romance, characterised by chivalric adventures and courtly love, and the allegory, were introduced from French literature. Middle English romances, such as "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight", were inspired by French models but adapted to reflect English cultural values and traditions.
The themes and motifs of French literature, including chivalry, courtly love, and heroic exploits, were adopted and adapted by English writers.
This cultural exchange is exemplified by the works of Geoffrey Chaucer, who drew heavily on French and Italian literary traditions. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, while underlining the importance and versatility of the English language, incorporates many French loanwords and reflects the blending of French and English literary styles. On the Italian side, Chaucer was influenced by the works of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio. His Troilus and Criseyde are based on Boccaccio's Il Filostrato, and The Canterbury Tales incorporates elements from Boccaccio's Decameron. Similarly, Sir Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur, written in the 15th century, further exemplifies the literary triumph of English while being deeply influenced by French Arthurian romances. These works, along with others, contributed to the widening of literacy and the standardisation of the English language.
The Printing Revolution
The arrival of William Caxton's printing press in England in 1476 was a pivotal moment in the history of the English language. The printing press enabled the mass production of books and other texts, facilitating the dissemination of English literature and contributing to the standardisation of the language. Caxton's publications included works by Geoffrey Chaucer and other notable authors, helping to cement their place in the English literary canon and ensure their widespread availability. The printing press also played a crucial role in the spread of literacy. As books became more widely available, literacy rates increased, and more people gained access to education and knowledge. This democratisation of knowledge contributed to the rise of a literate middle class and the development of a public sphere (Burrow & Turville-Petre, 1992).
The Role of Religious Literature
By the end of the 14th century, English had reasserted itself as the dominant language of England. This linguistic triumph was facilitated by several factors, including the decline of French influence, the rise of English nationalism, and the increasing use of English in education, administration, and literature.
The increasing use of English in education and the Church also played a crucial role in its triumph over French. By the 14th century, English had become the language of instruction in grammar schools, and religious texts were increasingly translated into English. Works such as The Ancrene Wisse, a guide for female recluses, and Piers Plowman, an allegorical poem by William Langland, reflect the deep religious and moral concerns of medieval English society. John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible into English in the late 14th century was a landmark achievement, making the scriptures accessible to a broader audience and further elevating the status of the English language.
The spread of religious literature in English helped to promote literacy and education, contributing to the rise of a literate middle class and the development of a public sphere. The Church played a significant role in promoting literacy and education. Monasteries and religious institutions were centres of learning and scholarship, preserving and transmitting knowledge through the ages. The Church's emphasis on education and the dissemination of religious texts in English helped to solidify English as the language of religion and scholarship.
The Role of Women in Middle English Literature
Women played an important role in Middle English literature, both as authors and as subjects. Female authors, such as Julian of Norwich and Margery Kempe, wrote about their religious experiences and provided valuable insights into the spiritual lives of medieval women. Their works, written in English, contributed to the development of English prose and showcased the versatility and expressiveness of the language. Women also played a significant role as patrons of literature. Many noblewomen supported poets and writers, commissioning works and providing financial support. This patronage helped to foster a vibrant literary culture and ensured the production of a diverse range of literary works.
Linguistic Changes
The Influence of Latin and Scandinavian Languages
In addition to Norman French, Latin, and Scandinavian languages also influenced the development of English. Latin, the language of the Church and scholarship, contributed many words related to religion, education, and law. The influence of Latin can be seen in the many Latin-derived words that entered English during the medieval period and the Renaissance.
The influence of Scandinavian languages, particularly Old Norse, was also significant. The Viking invasions and the establishment of the Danelaw in northern England brought many Scandinavian words into English. Words such as 'sky', 'window', 'knife' and 'husband' are of Old Norse origin. The Scandinavian influence also extended to place names and personal names, reflecting the integration of Scandinavian settlers into English society (Burrow & Turville-Petre, 1992).
Vocabulary: The Influence of French and Latin
The vocabulary of Middle English was significantly enriched by the influence of French and Latin. The Norman Conquest introduced many Norman French words into English, particularly in the domains of law, administration, art, literature, and military matters. Central French influence in the later medieval period further expanded the English vocabulary, especially in areas such as fashion, cuisine, and culture (Baugh & Cable, 1993).
Latin, the language of the Church and of scholarship, also contributed many words to Middle English. These Latin-derived words were often related to religion, education, and law. The influence of Latin can be seen in the many Latin-derived words that entered English during the medieval period and the Renaissance (Burrow & Turville-Petre, 1992).
Changes in Phonology, Morphology, and Syntax
The influence of French on Middle English was not confined to vocabulary. It also brought about significant changes in phonology, morphology, and syntax. The loss of inflexions in Middle English can be partly attributed to the influence of French, which had a simpler inflectional system compared to Old English. This loss of inflexions led to a more fixed word order and increased reliance on prepositions to indicate grammatical relationships (Fisiak, 1993).
Phonology: The Evolution of Sounds
Middle English phonology underwent significant changes, which contributed to the development of the modern English sound system. One of the most notable changes was the Great Vowel Shift, which began in the late Middle English period and continued into the Early Modern English period. This shift involved a systematic change in the pronunciation of long vowels, which moved upwards in the mouth. For example, the Middle English word 'bite' (pronounced /biːtə/) became 'bite' (pronounced /baɪt/) in Modern English (Crystal, 1995).
Consonant changes included the loss of certain sounds, such as the voiced and voiceless fricatives [ð] and [θ] in some dialects, and the introduction of new sounds, influenced by contact with French and other languages. These phonological changes contributed to the distinctive sound of Middle English and set the stage for further phonetic evolution in Early Modern English (Burrow & Turville-Petre, 1992).
Phonological changes thus included the lengthening and shortening of vowels in stressed syllables, the development of new diphthongs, and changes in consonant sounds. These changes contributed to the phonetic evolution of English and helped to shape its modern sound system (Baugh & Cable, 1993).
Morphology: The Simplification of Inflections
The morphology of Middle English was characterised by the gradual loss of inflexions, which simplified the grammar of the language. Old English had a complex system of inflexions to indicate case, number, and gender. However, many of these inflexions were gradually lost, leading to a more analytic language structure.
For example, the Old English noun "nama" (name) had different forms for different cases: "nama" (nominative), "namen" (genitive), "namen" (dative), and "namen" (accusative). In Middle English, these forms were simplified to "name" for all cases. This loss of inflexions was accompanied by an increased reliance on word order and prepositions to convey grammatical relationships (Burrow & Turville-Petre, 1992).
Syntax: The Development of Fixed Word Order
The simplification of inflexions in Middle English led to significant changes in syntax. Old English had a relatively free word order, with the position of words in a sentence determined by their inflectional endings. However, as inflexions were lost, word order became more fixed to indicate grammatical relationships.
Middle English developed a Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) word order, which is the standard word order in Modern English. This fixed word order was necessary to convey meaning in the absence of inflectional endings. The use of prepositions also increased, providing additional grammatical information and helping to clarify the relationships between words in a sentence.
Conclusion
This comprehensive series traces English from its earliest roots to its status as a global lingua franca, highlighting the significant periods and influences that have contributed to its development. The journey from Old English to Present-Day English encompasses a rich history of invasions, cultural exchanges, and social transformations, each of which has left an indelible mark on the language. The Norman Conquest of 1066 stands as a pivotal moment in this history, introducing Norman French and reshaping English society and its linguistic landscape.
This event set in motion profound changes, not only in vocabulary and grammar but also in social structure and cultural practices. The assimilation of Norman French, alongside Latin and Old Norse, expanded English vocabulary and influenced its phonological and syntactic development, marking a shift towards a more analytic language structure. This period also saw the rise of a trilingual society in which Latin, French and English coexisted and influenced one another, particularly in legal, administrative, and literary contexts.
As the series progresses into the Middle English period, the narrative of the English language is enriched by the cultural and literary contributions of figures such as Geoffrey Chaucer. The increasing use of English in literature and administration during this time reflects a broader social shift towards the language, facilitated by events such as the Hundred Years' War and the Black Death. The establishment of the printing press by William Caxton in the late 15th century was another watershed moment, standardising English and broadening access to literature and knowledge. This technological advancement significantly contributed to the spread of literacy and the establishment of English as the language of scholarship and education. The gradual decline of French influence and the rise of English was further cemented during the Tudor period, as English became the dominant language of government and literature.
The socioeconomic changes that followed these events further facilitated the spread of English and increased literacy rates among the middle and lower classes. The gradual decline of the feudal system and the rise of a more dynamic middle class created a fertile environment for the development and standardisation of English. These events not only catalysed linguistic changes but also fostered a burgeoning sense of national identity, further elevating English as a symbol of unity and culture.
The study of Middle English and the influence of French provides valuable insights into the dynamic nature of language and the ways in which historical events shape linguistic and cultural development. The legacy of the Norman Conquest and the subsequent linguistic evolution highlights the resilience and adaptability of the English language, illustrating how external influences can be assimilated and transformed into a unique and enduring linguistic heritage.
The series concludes with an examination of the ongoing evolution of English, noting the continuous adaptation and integration of new influences. The rich tapestry of influences, from Latin and Norman French to Scandinavian languages and beyond, has endowed English with a vast and diverse vocabulary, a flexible grammatical structure, and a changing phonological system.
As English continues to evolve in response to the needs of global communication and cultural exchange, its history serves as a reminder of the dynamic nature of language and its capacity to adapt and grow. Exploring English's past is therefore not just an academic exercise, but a window into the cultural and social currents that continue to shape our world today.
Bibliographical References
Baugh, Albert C., & Cable, Thomas. (2013). A History of the English Language (6th Rev. ed.). London: Routledge.
Burrow, John A., & Turville-Petre, Thorlac. (1992). A book of Middle English. Oxford: Blackwell.
Crystal, David. (1995). The Cambridge encyclopedia of the English language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fisiak, Jacek. (1993). An outline history of English. Poznán: Kantor Wydawniczy Saww.
Ingham, Richard. (2012). The transmission of Anglo-Norman: Language history and language acquisition. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Wogan-Browne, Jocelyn, Collette, Carolyn, Kowaleski, Maryanne, Mooney, Linne, Putter, Ad, & Trotter, David (Eds.). (2009). Language and culture in medieval Britain: The French of England, C.1100-C.1500. Woodbridge: York Medieval Press.
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When discussing "The History of the English Language 101: Middle English," it's fascinating to see how the language evolved during this period, especially with influences from Norman French. For those diving deep into such topics, balancing coursework can be challenging. If you're pressed for time, considering options like buy assignments online australia can be a helpful way to ensure you meet your academic deadlines without compromising quality.
I also love the fact that the Normandy was named after the Vikings who settled there in the 9th century ("Northmen"). So England was invaded by Viking descendants once again in 1066, bringing in geometry dash lite linguistic influences AGAIN!